Council Policy Manual: N. Public Interest - Part 1

The APA Policy Manual is a collection of policy actions taken by the APA Council of Representatives. This edition includes actions taken after 1960 and up to but not including August 2001. The texts included in the Manual are the texts of the actual motions passed by Council.

• I. Abortion
  
• II. Assisted Suicide
  
• III. Boxing
  
• IV. Child Custody
  
• V. Child Sex Abuse
  
• VI. Corporal Punishment
  
• VII. Cultural & Ethnic Diversity

I. ABORTION

1. 1970

WHEREAS, in many state legislature, bills have recently been introduced for the purpose of repealing or drastically modifying the existing criminal codes with respect to the termination of unwanted pregnancies; and whereas, termination of unwanted pregnancies is clearly a mental health and child welfare issue, and a legitimate concern of APA; be it resolved, that termination of pregnancy be considered a civil right of the pregnant woman, to be handled as other medical and surgical procedures in consultation with her physician, and to be considered legal if performed by a licensed physician in a licensed medical facility.

2. 1980

Whereas, in 1969 APA Council adopted the following resolution:

Whereas, in many state legislatures, bills have recently been introduced for the purpose of repealing or drastically modifying the existing criminal codes with respect to the termination of unwanted pregnancies; and whereas, termination of unwanted pregnancies is clearly a mental health and child welfare issue, and a legitimate concern of APA: be it resolved that termination of pregnancy be considered a civil right of the pregnant woman, to be handled as other medical and surgical procedures in consultation with her physician, and to be considered legal if performed by a licensed physician in a licensed medical facility;

And whereas, on 22 January 1973 the U.S. Supreme Court declared that

We recognize the right of the individual, married or single, to be free from unwarranted governmental intervention into matters fundamentally affecting a person such as the decision whether to bear or beget a child. That right necessarily includes the right of a woman to decide whether or not to terminate her pregnancy;

And whereas, the right to conduct scientific research is fundamental to a free society and to the science and profession of psychology, and political interference in the awarding and releasing of research funds constitutes a serious encroachment on this right;

And whereas, the right to conduct scientific research on abortion and reproductive health has been impeded by governmental restrictions and is further threatened by other disturbing attacks;

Therefore be it moved, that APA, within the context of its traditional concern for human welfare and freedom of scientific research, affirms the right of qualified researchers to conduct appropriate research in all areas of fertility regulation as long as standards for ethical, scientific and professional conduct are met.

3. 1989

WHEREAS in 1969, the APA identified freedom of reproductive choice as a mental health and child welfare issue;

WHEREAS the APA Council of Representatives decries the uninformed movement in many state legislatures to recriminalize abortion to limit access to the full range of reproductive options, especially to poor women who use publicly funded health services;

WHEREAS erroneous assertions about widespread severe negative psychological effects of abortion are being used to argue for laws that restrict reproductive freedom;

WHEREAS a review of the best scientific evidence by an APA panel of experts finds these assertions to be without fact;

WHEREAS uninformed public statements and a lack of understanding about psychological responses after unwanted pregnancy and abortion can themselves create emotional distress;

WHEREAS the weight of evidence is that legal abortion as a resolution to an unwanted pregnancy, particularly in the first trimester, does not create psychological hazards for most women undergoing the procedures; and

WHEREAS the preponderance of scientific data supports the conclusion that freedom of choice and a woman's control over her critical life decisions promotes psychological health;

THEREFORE BE IT MOVED that the Council of Representatives of the APA directs the Executive Vice President and Chief Executive Officer to undertake an immediate initiative to disseminate scientific information on reproductive freedom to policymakers, to the public, and to state psychological associations and APA divisions.

4. February 1992

Council voted to adopt the following resolution on the Rust v. Sullivan Supreme Court Decision:

WHEREAS, the American Psychological Association in 1983 determined that . . . requiring clinics to provide the same blanket information to every pregnant woman, rather than to provide each woman whatever information is individually appropriate to her particular needs, is inconsistent with basic principles of effective counseling and will hinder, rather than promote, informed consent."

(APA Amicus Curiae, City of Akron v. Akron Center for Reproductive Health)

WHEREAS, the American Medical Association and other health care provider organizations have already officially decried the hazardous effects of the Rust v. Sullivan Supreme Court Decision upholding the Title X Family Planning Program Regulations, known as the "Gag Rule"; and

WHEREAS, the American Psychological Association has already adopted previous policies regarding a woman's right to reproductive choice.

BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association deplores the effects of the Title X regulations which prohibit health providers, including psychologists , who receive federal Title X funds, from informing women patients/clients of the availability of the alternative of abortion to terminate an unwanted pregnancy.

Further, the APA urges the Congress to enact legislation and to override Presidential vetoes, as needed, to both remedy this health hazard and to serve as a precedent to buttress against further erosion of the rights associated with Roe v. Wade.

Further, APA will seek to inform Congress, the public and its own membership of its position and its recommendations through a public affairs and advocacy effort including but not limited to:

Further, we direct the Chief Executive Officer of the American Psychological Association to activate the necessary mechanisms to ensure the accomplishments of the aims and goals of this resolution, including the capacity to respond to ongoing critical reproductive issues [by participating in public information/media outreach efforts as necessary to help preserve a woman's right to choose.

II. ASSISTED SUICIDE

1. February 2001

Whereas the issue of assisted suicide is complex, involving are as of ethics, religion, medicine, psychology, sociology, economics, the law, public policy, and other fields; and

Whereas in the United States there is significant social stratification related to cultural, ethnic, economic, gender, and religious differences; and

Whereas these differences in our society are associated with an equally diverse range of views regarding assisted suicide; and

Whereas in the United States decisions about assisted suicide are made in the context of serious social inequities in access to resources such as basic medical care; and

Whereas autonomy is an important guiding principle in the law and in psychological and medical aspects of decision-making, but in and of itself is insufficient to capture the full range of complex medical, familial, social, financial, psychological, cultural, spiritual, and legal issues involved in the practice of assisted suicide; and

Whereas there is increasing public support for assisted suicide, but this support is weakest among groups who express concerns about being pressured to die (i.e., older adults, people with less education, women, and ethnic minorities) (Blendon, Szalay, & Knox, 1992); and

Whereas reasonable, well-informed people starting from different positions about costs and gains associated with assisted suicide disagree about the potential effects of legalizing the practice; and

Whereas people with different values and priorities can reach different conclusions about the advisability of assisted suicide; and

Whereas some evidence suggests that there are fluctuations in the will to live (Chochinov, Tataryn, Clinch, & Dudgeon, 1999) and in wishes regarding life-sustaining treatments (Weisman, Haas, & Fowler, 1999); and

Whereas pain and clinical depression are frequently under-treated, which can lead to suffering that may result in requests for assisted suicide (Foley, 1995); and

Whereas evidence suggests that some people rescind their requests for assisted suicide when they receive more aggressive and comprehensive care (Ganzini et al., 2000); and

Whereas little empirical data exist to determine the effects of assisted suicide on survivors and on society (Cooke et al., 1998); and

Whereas the empirical database, legal developments, and policy discourse related to assisted suicide are evolving rapidly;

Therefore, be it resolved that the American Psychological Association take a position that neither endorses nor opposes assisted suicide at this time.

However,

Given that psychologists have many areas of competence, including assessment, counseling, teaching, consultation, research, and advocacy skills that could potentially enlighten the discourse about assisted suicide, end-of-life treatment, and support for dying persons and their significant others; and

Given that psychologists could be instrumental in helping health care providers to understand and cope with the concerns and needs of dying individuals and their families; and

Given that practicing psychologists may receive requests to be involved in the education of various groups regarding assisted suicide; and

Given that there is one state in which assisted suicide is legal and psychological or psychiatric assessment and consultation is required under certain circumstances; and

Given that practicing psychologists may be part of multidisciplinary end-of-life care teams including ones exploring requests for assisted suicide;

Let it be further resolved that the American Psychological Association will assist in preparing the profession to address the issue of assisted suicide by taking the following actions:

Advocate for quality end-of-life care for all individuals; and

Encourage and promote the development of research on assisted suicide; and

Monitor legal, policy, and research developments that may require or encourage psychologists to involve themselves in assisted suicide cases; and

Promote policies that reduce suffering that could lead to requests for assisted suicide; and

Promote psychologists' involvement in research on ethical dilemmas faced by clinicians and researchers dealing with issues related to assisted suicide; and

Promote psychologists' participation in multidisciplinary teams and ethics committees involved with reviewing end-of-life requests; and

Encourage psychologists to obtain training in the area of ethics as it applies to end-of-life decisions and care; and

Encourage practicing psychologists to inform themselves about criminal and civil laws that have bearing on assisted suicide in the states in which they practice; and

Encourage practicing psychologists to recognize the powerful influence they may have with clients who are considering assisted suicide; and

Encourage psychologists to identify factors leading to assisted suicide requests (including clinical depression, levels of pain and suffering, adequacy of comfort care, and other internal and external variables) and to fully explore alternative interventions (including hospice/palliative care, and other end-of-life options such as voluntarily stopping eating and drinking) for clients considering assisted suicide; and

Encourage practicing psychologists to be aware of their own views about assisted suicide, including recognizing possible biases about entitlement to resources based on disability status, age, sex, sexual orientation, or ethnicity of the client requesting assisted suicide; and

Encourage psychologists to be especially sensitive to the social and cultural biases which may result in some groups and individuals being perceived by others, and/or being encouraged to perceive themselves, as more expendable and less deserving of continued life (e.g., people with disabilities, women, older adults, people of color, gay men, lesbians, bisexual people, transgendered individuals, and persons who are poor).

Blendon, R. J., Szalay, U. S., & Knox, R. A. (1992). Should physicians aid their patients in dying? The public perspective. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 2658-2662.

Breitbart, W., Rosenfeld, B. D., & Passik, S. D. (1996). Interest in physician-assisted suicide among ambulatory HIV infected patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 238-242.

Chochinov, H. M., Tataryn, D., Clinch, J. J., & Dudgeon, D. (1999). Will to live in the terminally ill. Lancet, 354, 816-819.

Cooke, M., Gourlay, L., Collette, L., Boccellari, A., Chesney, M. A., & Folkman, S. (1998). Informal care givers and the intention to hasten AIDS-related death. Archives of Internal Medicine, 158, 69-75.

Emanuel, E. J., Fairclough, D. L., Slutsman, J., & Emanuel, L. L. (2000). Understanding economic and other burdens of terminal illness: The experience of patients and their caregivers. Annals of Internal Medicine, 132, 451-459.

Foley, K. M. (1995). Pain, physician-assisted suicide, and euthanasia. Pain Forum, 4, 163-178.

Ganzini, L., Nelson, H. D., Schmidt, T. A., Kraemer, D. F., Delorit, M. A., & Lee, M. A. (2000). Physicians' experiences with the Oregon Death with Dignity Act. New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 557-563.

Sullivan, A. D., Hedberg, K., & Fleming, D. W. (2000). Legalized physician-assisted suicide in Oregon -- The second year. New England Journal of Medicine, 342, 598-604.

Weisman, J. S., Haas, J. S., & Fowler, F. J. (1999). The stability of preferences for life sustaining care among persons with AIDS in the Boston Health Study. Medical Decision Making, 19, 16-26.

III. BOXING

1. 1985

WHEREAS, recent studies show that existing medical controls and safety measures have not prevented chronic brain damage in boxers who have fought in recent years (after 1960), and

WHEREAS, neuropsychological testing is a highly sensitive and accurate means of detecting brain damage in fighters and others with head injuries, and

WHEREAS, many psychologists educate the public and especially young people through courses and textbooks, and

WHEREAS, resolutions calling for the elimination of both amateur and professional boxing have been passed recently by the American Medical Association and the British Medical Association,

BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association: Encourage the elimination of both amateur and professional boxing, a sport in which the objective is to inflict injury; communicate its opposition to boxing to appropriate regulating bodies; assist state psychological societies to work with their state legislatures to enact laws to eliminate laws to eliminate boxing in their jurisdictions; educate the American public, especially children and young adults, about the dangerous effects of boxing on the health of participants; specifically, psychologists who give courses and who write textbooks that take up relations between behavior and the nervous system are asked to consider including material on boxing an brain damage in their courses and textbooks; encourage neuropsychological evaluations of boxers be given on periodic (one or two year) basis; and encourage ring-side evaluations during bouts be done by individuals who are trained to perform neurocognitive investigations of acute mental status change.

IV. CHILD CUSTODY

1. 1977

Be its resolved that the Council of Representatives recognizes officially and makes suitable promulgation of the fact that its is scientifically and psychologically baseless, as well as in violation of human rights, to discriminate against men because of their sex in assignment of children's custody, in adoption, in the staffing of child-care services, in personnel practices providing for parental leave in relation to childbirth and emergencies involving children, and in similar laws and practices. Further, it is recommended that suitable promulgation of the resolution (with the paragraphs providing the rationale) include specific mailing to the Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court in his capacity as the chief administrative officer of the Federal court system, to presiding judges of the various state court systems, to the Attorney General of the United States, and to the Attorney General of the states.

V. CHILD SEX ABUSE

1. February 1991

Council voted to approve the following statement on the use of anatomically detailed dolls in forensic evaluations:

"Anatomically detailed dolls are widely used in conducting assessments in cases of alleged child sexual abuse. In general, such dolls may be useful in helping children to communicate when their language skills or emotional concerns preclude direct verbal responses. These dolls may also be useful communication props to help older children who may have difficulty expressing themselves verbally on sexual topics.

These dolls are available from a variety of vendors and are readily sold to anyone who wishes to purchase them. The design, detail, and nature of the dolls vary considerably across manufacturers. Neither the dolls, nor their use, are standardized or accompanied by normative data. There are currently not uniform standards for conducting Interviews with the dolls.

We urge continued research In quest of more and better data regarding the stimulus properties of such dolls and normative behavior of abused and non-abused children. Nevertheless, doll-centered assessment of children when used as part of a psychological evaluation and Interpreted by experienced and competent examiners, may be the best available practical solution for a pressing and frequent clinical problem (I.e., Investigation of the possible presence of sexual abuse of a child).

Therefore, In conformity with the Ethical Principle of Psychologists, psychologists who undertake the doll-centered assessment of sexual abuse should be competent to use these techniques. We recommend that psychologists document by videotape (whenever possible), audiotape, or in writing the procedures they use for each administration. Psychologists should be prepared to provide clinical and empirical rationale (I.e., published studies, clinical experience, etc.) for procedures employed and for Interpretation of results derived from using anatomically detailed dolls."

Council also voted to direct the Board for the Advancement of Psychology In the Public Interest to select a working group of up to 6 scholars to review the literature on the use of anatomically detailed dolls In sexual abuse evaluations and to prepare a manuscript on that topic for submission to a peer reviewed journal, and authorizes $3,500 be added to the 1991 budget for this purpose.

2. August 1999

Council received as information a notification of the emergency action taken by the Board of Directors in which they adopted an APA Resolution Opposing Child Sexual Abuse. [Appendix N - V.2]

VI. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT

1. 1975

WHEREAS: The resort to corporal punishment tends to reduce the likelihood of employing more effective, humane, and creative ways of interacting with children;

WHEREAS: It is evident that socially acceptable goals of education, training, and socialization can be achieved without the use of physical violence against children, and that children so raised, grow to moral and competent adulthood;

WHEREAS: Corporal punishment intended to influence "undesirable responses" may create in the child the impression that he or she is an "undesirable person"; and an impression that lowers self-esteem and may have chronic consequences;

WHEREAS: Research has shown that to a considerable extent children learn by imitating the behavior of adults, especially those they are dependent upon; and the use of corporal punishment by adults having authority over children is likely to train children to use physical violence to control behavior rather than rational persuasion, education, and intelligent forms of both positive and negative reinforcement;

WHEREAS: Research has shown that the effective use of punishment in eliminating undesirable behavior requires precision in timing, duration, intensity, and specificity, as well as considerable sophistication in controlling a variety of relevant environmental and cognitive factors, such that punishment administered in institutional settings, without attention to all these factors, is likely to instill hostility, rage, and a sense of powerlessness without reducing the undesirable behavior;

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED: That the American Psychological Association opposes the use of corporal punishment in schools, juvenile facilities, child care nurseries, and all other institutions, public or private, where children are cared for or educated.

VII. CULTURAL & ETHNIC DIVERSITY

1. August 1990

On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs, Council approved the following resolution opposing the English-only Initiative:

WHEREAS English is and will remain the primary language of the U.S., and members of our society recognized the importance of English to national life, individual accomplishment, and personal enrichment; and

WHEREAS many U.S. citizens and other individuals residing in the U.S. have native languages other than English, including many languages Indigenous to this country, and many members of our society have not had an equal opportunity to learn English; and

WHEREAS research supports the Importance of language in the transmission of culture, and the notion that healthy personal identity development is closely connected to the positive development of cultural identity and effectiveness in behavioral functioning; and

WHEREAS English-only laws threaten to serve as a barrier to the delivery of psychological, health, and other human services by requiring such services to be provided solely in English; and

WHEREAS it has been shown that deleterious mental health effects including misdiagnosis and misassessment can occur when non-native speakers of English are denied the right to obtain services in their primary language, and

WHEREAS the English-only laws are anti-immigrant and anti-minority by appealing to fears of social disunity, and undermine a culturally pluralistic society; and

WHEREAS our fundamental values and national documents ensure tolerance and respect for social and cultural diversity and guarantee all persons equal protection under the law,

BE IT RESOLVED THAT

The American Psychological Association supports cultural and democratic pluralism, while at the same time affirming that the national Interest can best be served when all members of a society have full access to effective opportunities to acquire strong English language proficiency and maintain mastery of a second or multiple languages for the enhancement of human potential.

The American Psychological Association opposes any initiative that potentially creates linguistic barriers to effective behavioral functioning, barriers to delivery of services In other than the English language, or that threatens to restrict the civil rights, civil liberties or equal opportunity of all persons, including persons with limited English proficiency.

The American Psychological Association recognizes and supports the need to retain and strengthen the full range of language assistance policies and programs, including bilingual assistance, In order to ensure all members of society an equal opportunity to exercise their rights and responsibilities in regard to the electoral process, education, the legal system, social services, and health care."

2. August 1990

On the recommendation of the Board of Directors and the Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs, Council voted to approve the Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Ethnic and Culturally Diverse Populations. Prior to approval Council voted to approve the following amendments to the Guidelines:

The following sentence from the last paragraph of the preamble is deleted: "The Guidelines may be appropriately applied to psychological practice with all client populations, including the majority culture."

Section 1: Change "adhere" to "aspire" and correct the reference to the General Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Services.

Section 2: a. amended to read: "Whenever possible, psychologists should provide Information In writing along with oral explanations." [Appendix N - VII.2]

3. February 1998

Council voted to adopt the following resolution:

WHEREAS the largest proportion of the population of the United States of America is composed of people whose ancestors immigrated to this country from other lands (Fix & Passel, 1994);

WHEREAS immigrants to the United States, categorized as foreign-born in the U.S. Bureau of the Census reports, are a diverse group including both documented and undocumented individuals who make up 8% of the current population (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1993) and include 2.1 million foreign-born children who together with second-generation immigrant children constitute the fastest-growing segment of the U.S. population under age 15 (Fix & Zimmerman, 1993; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996);

WHEREAS the experience of immigration has immediate implications for the psychological and social well-being of individuals and families (Beiser, 1988; Westermeyer, Williams, and Neguyen, 1991) which are especially intense for children, people of color, people of the impoverished socioeconomic classes (Fix & Passel, 1994), as well as women (Yee, 1997; Yee, Huang, & Lew, in press), lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons (Espin, 1997; Patterson, 1995), and individuals with disabilities;

WHEREAS immigrants to the United States experience unique stresses, prejudice, and poverty and can be considered at-risk subpopulations for health, emotional and behavioral problems (Eisenbruch, 1988; Williams & Berry, 1991) as well as, in the case of children, learning and academic difficulties (Rousseau, Drapeau, and Corin, 1996);

WHEREAS 23.4% of all foreign-born residents including children and youth, who entered the United States from 1980 to 1990 are now at or below the poverty level, as compared to 9.5% of the native (i.e., U.S.-born) population (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1993);

WHEREAS, in addition to poverty, the challenges of exploitation and isolation are faced by some immigrants, such as service workers from Asia and Haiti (Andersen, 1997; Amott & Matthaei, 1991); and migrant farm workers from Mexico and Central or South America (Olivera, Effland, & Hamm, 1993) whose children often leave school to enter the migrant stream to work with their parents, since few states set minimum age limits for child farm labor (Fuentes, 1974; DiPerna, 1981; Martinez, Scott, Cranston-Gingras, & Platt, 1994; Wilk, 1986);

WHEREAS mental health-related issues, particularly stress associated with trauma, acculturation to language, economics, health care, education, religion, as well as encounters with both individual and institutional bias, are faced consistently by foreign-born residents of this country (Kraut, 1994; Portes & Rumbaut, 1996) and differential degrees of acculturation within immigrant families can negatively affect family communication and even evoke conflict, particularly between parents and their adolescent offspring (Pedersen, Draguns, Lonner, and Trimble, 1996; Ponterotto, Casas, Suzuki, and Alexander, 1995);

WHEREAS health, disease-specific prevention -- particularly HIV prevention and treatment (Ryan, Tapscott, Carde, Havenner, Keene, Smith, & Bell , 1992) -- mental health, and social services are under-utilized by foreign-born resident populations (Beiser, 1988), especially refugees (Beiser, 1988), migrant workers, and undocumented immigrants (Wilk, 1986), and such services are unavailable in many locations;

WHEREAS foreign immigration has periodically evoked in the citizenry negative perceptions and feelings that find expression in executive and legislative initiatives that attempt to limit immigrants' civil rights and access to public benefits such as education and other human services for children, youth, and families (Board on Children and Families, 1995; Degler, 1970; Goldenberg, 1996);

WHEREAS a review of the literature in American psychology journals shows scant attention to these issues while policies and programs for immigrant children, youth, and families are being established despite the paucity of scientific data on this population (Board on Children and Families, 1995);

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association, an organization that is committed to promoting the psychological well-being of children, youth, and families:

(1) advocates for the development of a scientific data base concerning the adaptation, development, education, health, and mental health, as well as the social impact and contributions, of immigrant and refugee populations;

(2) supports efforts to increase funding for research about the adaptation, development, education, health, and mental health of diverse immigrant children, youth, and families;

(3) promotes and facilitates psychologists' acquisition of competencies, including relevant cultural knowledge, attitude, and skills in providing services to and conducting research on immigrant children, youth, and families;

(4) advocates and promotes efforts to increase the availability of and access to educational, health, mental health, and social services for immigrant children, youth, and families; and

(5) promotes and supports public policies that recognize and provide for the psychosocial needs of immigrant children, youth, and families.

Andersen, M.L. (1997). Thinking about women: Sociological perspectives on sex and gender. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Amott, T.L., & Matthaei, J. A. (1991). Race, gender, and work: A multicultural history of women in the United States. Boston: South End Press.

Beiser, M. (1988). After the door has opened: Mental health issues affecting immigrants and refugees in Canada. Ottawa: Health and Welfare Canada.

Board on Children and Families, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council, Institute of Medicine (1995). Immigrant children and their families: Issues for research and policy. The Future of Children, 5, 72-89.

Degler, C. (1970). Out of our past: The forces that shaped modern America. New York: Harper & Row.

DiPerna, P. (1981, July 27). The lethal cloud of indifference. The Nation, 786-789.

Eisenbruch, M. (1988). The mental health of refugee children and their cultural development. International Migration Review, 22, 282-300.

Espin, O. (1997). Crossing borders and boundaries: The life narratives of immigrant lesbians. In Greene, B. (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on lesbian and gay issues: Vol. 3. Ethnic and cultural diversity among lesbians and gay men (pp.191-215) Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Fix, M., & Passel, J. S. (1994). Immigration and immigrants: Setting the record straight. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.

Fix, M., & Zimmerman, W. (May 1993). Educating immigrant children: Chapter 1 in the changing city. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute 93-3. A report of the immigration policy program.

Fuentes, J. A. (1974). The need for effective and comprehensive planning for migrant workers. American Journal of Public Health, 64, 2-4.

Goldenberg, C. (1996). Latin American immigration and U.S. schools. Social Policy Report, Society for Research in Child Development, 10, (1). Ann Arbor, MI.

Kraut, A. M. (1994). Silent travelers: Germs, genes, and the "immigrant menace." New York: Basic Books.

Martinez, Y. G., Scott, J., Cranston-Gingras, A., & Platt, J. S. (1994). Voices from the field: Interviews with students from migrant farm worker families. Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, 14, 333-348.

Olivera, V., Effland, J. R., & Hamm, S. (1993). Hired farm labor use on fruit, vegetable, and horticultural specialty farms. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Patterson, C.J. (1995). Sexual orientation and human development: An overview. Developmental Psychology, 31, (3-11).

Pedersen, P. B., Draguns, J. G., Lonner, W. J., & Trimble, J. E. (1996). Counseling across cultures (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Ponterotto, J. G., Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L.A., & Alexander, C.M. (1995). Handbook of multicultural counseling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Portes, A. & Rumbaut, R. G. (1996). Immigrant America: A portrait (2nd ed.) Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Rousseau, C., Drapeau, A., & Corin, E. (1996). School performance and emotional problems in refugee children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, (2), 239-251.

Ryan, C., Tapscott, J., Carde, H., Havenner, S., Keene, D., Smith, M., & Bell, D. (1992). Language, cultural and psychological barriers to access. Agency for HIV/AIDS, District of Columbia Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Plan 1992-1996. p.3-3. Agency for HIV/AIDS: District of Columbia.

U. S. Bureau of the Census (1993, July). The foreign-born population in the United States, 1990 census of the population. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1996). Trends in the well-being of America's children and youth: 1996. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation.

Westermeyer, J., Williams, C. L., & Neguyen, A. N. (1991). Mental health services for refugees. DHHS Publication No. [ADM] 91-1824). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

Williams, C. L. & Berry, J. W. (1991). Primary prevention of acculturative stress among refugees: Application of psychological theory and practice. American Psychologist, 46, 632-641.

Wilk, V. A. (1986). The occupational health of migrant and seasonal farm workers in the United States (2nd edition). Washington, DC: Farm worker Justice Fund, Inc.

Yee, B. W. K. (1997). The social and cultural content of adaptation of aging among Southeast Asian elders. In J. Sokolovsky (Ed.), The cultural context of aging, 2nd Edition, New York: Greenwood Publishers.

Yee, B. W. K.; Huang, L. N. & Lew, A. (In press). Asian and Pacific Islander families: Life spansocialization in a cultural context. In L. L. Lee & N. Zane (Eds.), Handbook of Asian American Psychology, Vol. I, Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

4. February 1999

Council voted to reaffirm its commitment to affirmative action and to adopt the following:

WHEREAS affirmative action is defined as a remedy for both past and continuing discrimination based on race, ethnicity and gender; and

WHEREAS affirmative action seeks to put in place voluntary and mandatory efforts by federal, state and local governments, private employers and schools; to combat discrimination, foster fair hiring and advancement of qualified individuals regardless of their race, ethnicity and gender; and to promote equal opportunity in education and employment for all (Stephanopoulos and Edley, 1995 & Wilson, 1995); and

WHEREAS there is evidence that discrimination on the basis of race, ethnic background, gender, sexual orientation, age, and disability continues to exist in employment and educational settings, despite years of effort to eliminate it; and clearly delineated institutional policies and procedures designed to assure fairness and equality can deter such discrimination (Report of the Federal Glass Ceiling Commission, 1995); and

WHEREAS affirmative action is one of the most effective ways to address the long-standing problems of racism and sexism in our country, thereby serving as a means of reaching America's goal of equality of opportunity (Pratkanis and Turner, 1996); and

WHEREAS affirmative action benefits all members of society because all citizens benefit by being part of a well-trained, competitive workforce capable of participating effectively in the global world market place and of supporting an aging population (Helms, 1996; Norton & Fox, 1998); and

WHEREAS America is increasingly becoming a multiethnic, multilingual, and multicultural society, psychology recognizes the need for ethnic diversity within the profession to increase the field's capacity to address the health and behavior issues for ethnically diverse groups in a culturally appropriate and culturally competent fashion Myers, Wohlford, Guzman and Echemendia, 1991); and

WHEREAS many ethnic minority groups disproportionately experience the trauma of oppression, discrimination, and poverty which at times may be manifested through behavioral, health and mental health problems that psychologists address (e.g., substance abuse, emotional and behavioral disturbances, etc.), psychology recognizes the need for culturally competent training in assessment and provision of services to individuals who experience these problems (Ponterotto, Casas, Suzuke and Alexander, 1995); and

WHEREAS APA joins organizations such as the Association of American Medical Colleges in recognizing that the failure of health professions to adequately address the needs of ethnic minority populations represents a public health crisis, and strongly supports efforts to ensure diversity in the nation's healthcare workforce (Association of American Medical Colleges, 1997); and

WHEREAS true diversity can only be accomplished by proactive, affirmative programs to increase the enrollment of ethnic minority students in undergraduate and graduate training programs in psychology and increase the numbers of ethnic minority faculty and psychological service providers within training and service settings (Myers, Wohlford, Guzman and Echemendia, 1991; Testimony of APA, 1997; and

WHEREAS the American Psychological Association is committed, in its Mission Statement and in its Bylaws, 1.1, "…to advance psychology as a science and profession and as a means of promoting human welfare ...";

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association reaffirms its commitment to affirmative action. American Psychological Association supports equal opportunities for persons regardless of race, gender, age, religion, disability, sexual orientation and national origin.

Furthermore, the APA encourages psychological and public policy research that would illuminate sources of bias in institutional policies and practices that lead to discrimination against the aforementioned groups and favors research that suggests avenues for elimination of discrimination.

American Psychological Association. (1996). Clarifying The Debate: Psychology Examines The Issues. Affirmative Action: Who Benefits? Washington DC: American Psychological Association.

American Psychological Association. (1997). Testimony of the APA presented to the U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Subcommittee on the Constitution on the topic of "H.R. 1909 'The Civil Rights Act of 1997"', Thursday, June 26, 1997.

Association of American Medical Colleges. (1997). Issue Brief: The Impact of Ending Affirmative Action on the Nation's Physician Workforce. AAMC: Washington, D.C.

Federal Glass Ceiling Commission (1995, March). Good for Business: Making Full Use of the Nation's Human Capital. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Helms, J. E. (1996). Affirmative Action: Who Benefits? Where Do We Go From Here? Washington, DC: The American Psychological Association.

Myers, HF, Wohlford, P., Guzman, L.P., Echemendia, R.J., (1991). Ethnic Minority Perspectives on Clinical Training and Services In Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Norton, J.R., & Fox, R.E. (1997). The Change Equation: Capitalizing on Diversity for Effective Organizational Change. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Ponterotto, J.G., Casas, J.M., Suzuki, L. A., & Alexander, C.M. (1995). Handbook of Multicultural Counseling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Pratkanis, A.R., & Turner, M.E. (1996). The Proactive Removal of Discriminatory Barriers: Affirmative Action As Effective Help. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 111-132.

Stephanopoulos, G., and Edley, C., Jr. (1995). Affirmative Action Review: Report to the President. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

Council requested that the Public Interest Directorate and the Chief Executive Officer work together on an implementation plan for the resolution and report back to Council in August 1999.

Council Policy Manual: Table of Contents | Introduction | A. Elections | B. Awards | C. Membership | D. Human Resources | E. Ethics | F. Board of Directors | G. Divisions and State and Provincial Associations | H. Organization of APA | I. Publications and Communcations | J. Convention Affairs | K. Educational Affairs | L. Professional Affairs | M. Scientific Affairs | N. Public Interest - Part 1 | N. Public Interest - Part 2 | N. Public Interest - Part 3 | N. Public Interest - Part 4 | N. Public Interest - Part 5 | O. Ethnic Minority Affairs | P. International Affairs | Q. Central Office | R. Financial Affairs