Council Policy Manual: N. Public Interest - Part 4

The APA Policy Manual is a collection of policy actions taken by the APA Council of Representatives. This edition includes action taken after 1960 through February 2001. Some policies adopted subsequent to February 2001 may not be reflected. The texts included in the Manual are the texts of the actual motions passed by Council.

• XXIV. Poverty & Socioeconomic Status
  
• XXV. Public Policy & Social Issues
  
• XXVI. Public Sector Services for Serious Mentally Ill
  
• XXVII. School Drop-Out
  
• XXVIII. Sexual Orientation

XXIV. POVERTY & SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

1. August 2000

Council voted to approve the Resolution on Poverty and Socioeconomic Status as follows:

WHEREAS the income gap between the poor and the rich has continued to increase, with the average income of the poorest fifth of the population down 6% and the average income of the top fifth up 30% over the past 20 years (Bernstein, McNichol, Mishel, & Zahradnik, 2000);

WHEREAS the poverty rate in the United States is higher now than in nearly all years of the 1970s, child poverty (at 18.9% in 1998, representing 13.5 million children) continues to be higher here than in most other industrialized nations, and the proportion of the population living below the poverty line in 1998 was 12.7% (representing 34.5 million people) (Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, 1999; U.S. Census Bureau, 1999);

WHEREAS although Whites represented the largest single group among the poor in 1998, ethnic groups were overrepresented, with 26.1 % of African Americans, 25.6% of Hispanics, 12.5% of Asians and Pacific Islanders, and 31% of American Indians on reservations living in poverty (National Congress of American Indians, 2000; U.S. Census Bureau, 1999), compared with the 8.2% of Whites who were poor;

WHEREAS families* with a female head of household had a poverty rate of 29.9% in 1998 and comprised the majority of poor families (U.S. Census Bureau, 1999);

WHEREAS the Task Force on Women, Poverty, and Public Assistance of the APA Society of the Psychology of Women (Division 35) has documented from the social sciences research literature the root causes of poverty and its impact for poor women, children, and their families, and called for a more effective public policy founded on this research base (Division 35 Task Force on Women, Poverty, and Public Assistance, 1998);

WHEREAS poverty is detrimental to psychological well-being, with NIMH data indicating that low- income individuals are 2 to 5 times more likely to suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder than those of the highest SES group (Bourdon, Rae, Narrow, Manderschild, & Regier, 1994; Regier et al., 1993), and poverty poses a significant obstacle to getting help for these mental health problems (McGrath, Keita, Strickland, & Russo, 1990);

WHEREAS accumulating research evidence indicates that the greater the income gap between the poorest and the wealthiest in a society, the higher the death rates for infants and adults and the lower the life expectancy for all members of that society, regardless of SES (Kawachi & Kennedy,1997);

WHEREAS the impact of poverty on young children is significant and long lasting, limiting chances of moving out of poverty (McLoyd, 1998), poverty is associated with substandard housing, homelessness, inadequate child care, unsafe neighborhoods, and underresourced schools (Fairchild, 1984; Lott & Bullock, in press), and poor children are at greater risk than higher income children for a range of problems, including detrimental affects on IQ, poor academic achievement, poor socioemotional functioning, developmental delays, behavioral problems, asthma, poor nutrition, low birth weight, and pneumonia (Geltman, Meyers, Greenberg, & Zuckerman, 1996; McLoyd, 1998; Parker, Greer, & Zuckerman, 1988);

WHEREAS environmental factors such as environmental contaminants (e.g., lead paint, etc.), crowding, substandard housing, lack of potable water, and so forth have detrimental effects on mental and physical development that perpetuate and contribute to poverty;

WHEREAS low socioeconomic status is associated in women with higher mortality rates and with osteoarthritis, hypertension, cervical cancer, coronary heart disease, AIDS/HIV infection, and other chronic health conditions (Adler & Coriell, 1997), and poor women are sicker and more likely to have disabilities than their nonpoor counterparts, limiting their employment options and straining their financial resources (Falik & Collins, 1996; Olson & Pavetti, 1997);

WHEREAS men living in poverty are at high risk of violence (Reiss & Roth, 1993) and women living in poverty are at high risk of all types of violence, including sexual abuse as children, with researchers documenting reports by two thirds of poor mothers of severe violence at the hands of a childhood caretaker and by 42% of child sexual molestation (Browne & Bassuk, 1997), as well as severe and life threatening assaults as adults (Bassuk, Browne, & Buckner, 1996; Brooks & Buckner, 1996; Colten & Allard, 1997; Roper & Weeks, 1993), which presents obstacles to work and self-sufficiency (NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund, 1997; Raphael, 1996);

WHEREAS lack of affordable health insurance, including mental health and substance abuse coverage, impedes health and well-being, and poor women are over 3 times as likely as higher income women to be uninsured: 36% versus 11 %, respectively (National Center for Health Statistics, 1995);

WHEREAS children of teenage pregnancy and single motherhood are at high risk for a life of poverty, and birth control is not covered by health insurance plans for a significant number of women;

WHEREAS older adults often live on limited retirement incomes, have limited prospects for future earnings, and frequently face overwhelming health care costs; 13% of older women and 20% of older persons living alone or with nonrelatives in 1998 lived on incomes below the poverty level-, and 49% of older African American women living alone lived in poverty in 1998 (U.S. Census Bureau, 1999, cited in U.S. Administration on Aging, 1999);

WHEREAS lower socioeconomic status among older adults is associated with higher rates of medical and psychological disorders, poor older adults have poorer access to medical care, prescription medications, long-term care, and community-based care (Estes, 1995), and Medicare funds mental health care at a lower rate than medical care, and this further limits the access for older adults in poverty to mental health and substance abuse services;

WHEREAS migrant families are by the nature of their work and life circumstances poorly served by health and mental health professionals (Portes & Rumbaut, 1996; Wilk, 1986);

WHEREAS undocumented immigrants are vulnerable to legal actions that inhibit their access to health and mental health services, compounding issues of poverty and limited English language proficiency (Olivera, Effland, & Hamm, 1993);

WHEREAS research focused on low-income groups including immigrants, ethnic minorities, minimum wage workers, families receiving public assistance, the homeless, migrant workers, and older women is limited;

WHEREAS low-income groups are the targets of discrimination based on their socioeconomic status as well as other social indicators such as race/ethnicity and gender (Lott, in press);

WHEREAS perceptions of the poor and of welfare - by those not in those circumstances -- tend to reflect attitudes and stereotypes that attribute poverty to personal failings rather than socioeconomic structures and systems and that ignore strengths and competencies in these groups (Ehrenreich, 1987; Katz, 1989; Quadagno, 1994), and public policy and anti-poverty programs continue to reflect these stereotypes (Bullock, 1995; Furnham, 1993; Furnham & Gunter, 1984; Rubin & Peplau, 1975);

WHEREAS programs that ensure that poor individuals and families have basic needs met are important in addressing the impact of poverty;

WHEREAS ethnic strife and war disrupt the economic, public health, and social systems comprising the safety net that helps ensure basic needs are met;

WHEREAS psychologists as researchers, service providers, educators, and policy advocates have a responsibility to better understand the causes of poverty and its impact on health and mental health, to help prevent and reduce the prevalence of poverty and to effectively treat and address the needs of low-income individuals and families by building on the strengths of communities;

WHEREAS psychologists are ethically guided to "respect the fundamental rights, dignity, and worth of all people" (American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 1992);

WHEREAS "psychologists are aware of their professional and scientific responsibilities to the community and the society in which they work and live" (American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, 1992);

THEREFORE Be it resolved that the American Psychological Association:

1. Will advocate for more research that examines the causes and impact of poverty, economic disparity, and related issues such as socioeconomic status, classism, ageism, unintended pregnancy, environmental factors, ethnic strife and war, stereotypes, the stigma and feelings of shame associated with poverty, and mental and physical health problems, including depression, substance abuse, intimate violence, child sexual abuse, and elder abuse, as well as advocate for the broader dissemination of these research findings.

2. Will advocate for more research on prejudicial and negative attitudes toward the poor by other persons who may individually or collectively perpetuate policies that tolerate poverty and social inequality.

3. Will advocate for more research on special populations who are poor (women and children, immigrants, undocumented immigrants, migrants, ethnic minorities, older people, people with disabilities and other chronic health conditions such as AIDS/HIV infection, and rural and urban populations).

4. Will advocate for research that identifies and learns from indigenous efforts by low-income people to work together to solve personal and shared problems or create organizations that advocate effectively for social justice.

5. Will recommend that where possible and appropriate socioeconomic status be identified for published reports of social sciences research.

6. Will advocate for incorporating evaluation and assessment tools and for encouraging integrative approaches such as the building of public and private community partnerships in programs addressing the issue of poverty and the poor, which psychological research has identified as effective strategies for addressing community level issues and problems.

7. Will encourage in psychological graduate and postgraduate education and training curricula more attention to the causes and impact of poverty, to the psychological needs of poor individuals and families, and to the importance of developing "cultural competence" and sensitivity to diversity around issues of poverty in order to be able to help prevent and reduce the prevalence of poverty and to treat and address the needs of low-income clients.

8. Will support public policy that encourages access for all children to high-quality early childhood education and a high-quality public school education, better equipping individuals for self-sufficiency.

9. Will support public policy that ensures access to postsecondary education and training that allows working families to earn a self-sufficient wage to meet their family's needs.

10. Will support public policy and programs that ensure adequate income, access to sufficient food and nutrition, and affordable and safe housing for poor people and all working families.

11. Will support public policy that ensures access to family-friendly jobs offering good quality health insurance, including coverage for comprehensive family planning, mental health and substance abuse services, flexible work schedules, and sufficient family and medical leave.

12. Will support public policy that ensures access to comprehensive family planning in private and public health insurance coverage.

13. Will support public policy that ensures parity with medical coverage for mental health and substance abuse services under Medicare and Medicaid and ensures for all individuals, regardless of ability to pay, access to health care and mental health and substance abuse treatment that is comprehensive and culturally sensitive, that accommodates the needs of the children of parents seeking treatment, and that addresses the special needs of older adults in poverty, including prescriptions and long-term care.

14. Will support public policy that encourages access for all children to high-quality early health care.

15. Will support public policy that ensures for all working families access to affordable, high-quality child care, which is available year round, for the full day, and for all work shifts, as well as before- and after-school care.

16. Will support public policy that provides early intervention and prevention for vulnerable children and families that enhance parenting, education, and community life so that children can develop the necessary competencies to move out of poverty.

17. Will support public policy that provides early interventions and prevention for vulnerable children and families that are strengths-based, community-based, flexible, sensitive to culture and ethnic values of the family, and that have a long-lasting impact.

*The word family should be understood to incorporate the functions of family members rather than their biological sex or sexual orientation, for example, lesbian heads of household.

References

Adler, N. E., & Coriell, M. (1997). Socioeconomic status and women's health. In S. J. Gallant, G. P. Keita, & R. Royak-Schaler (Eds.), Health care for women: Psychological, social, and behavioral influences. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. (1992). American Psychologist, 47, 1597-1611.

Bassuk, E. L., Browne, A., & Buckner, J. C. (1996, August 28). The characteristics and needs of sheltered homeless and low-income housed mothers. Journal of the American Medical Association, 276, 640-646.

Bernstein, J., McNichol, E. C., Mishel, L., Zahradnik, R. (2000, January). Pulling apart: A state- by-state analysis of income trends. Washington, DC: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities/Economic Policy Institute.

Bourdon, K. H., Rae, D. S., Narrow, W. E., Manderschild, R. W., & Regier, D. A. (1994). National prevalence and treatment of mental and addictive disorders. In R. W. Mandershild & A. Sonnenschein (Eds.), Mental health: United States. Washington, DC: Center for Mental Health Services.

Brooks, M. G., & Buckner, J. C. (1996). Work and welfare: Job histories, barriers to employment, and predictors of work among low-income single mothers. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 66, 526-537.

Browne, A., & Bassuk, S.S. (1997). Intimate violence in the lives of homeless and poor house women: Prevalence and patterns in an ethnically diverse sample. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 67(2), 261-278.

Bullock, H. E. (1995). Class acts: Middle-class responses to the poor. In B. Lott & D. Maluso (Eds.), The social psychology of interpersonal discrimination (pp. 118-159). New York: Guilford.

Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. (1999). Low unemployment, rising wages fuel poverty decline. Washington, DC: Author.

Colten, M. E., & Allard, M. A. (1997). In harm's way? Domestic violence, AFDC receipt and welfare reform In Massachusetts. Boston: University of Massachusetts Center for Social Policy Research.

Division 35 Task Force on Women, Poverty, and Public Assistance, APA Division of the Psychology of Women. (1998). Making welfare to work really work. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. (Available from http://www.apa.org/pi/wpo/welftowork.htmi

Ehrenreich, B. (1987). The new right attack on welfare. In F. Block, R. A. Cloward, B. Ehrenreich, & F. F. Piven, The mean season: The attack on the welfare state (pp. 161-195). New York: Pantheon Books.

Estes, C. (1995). Mental health issues for the elderly: Key policy elements. In M. Gatz (Ed.), Emerging issues in mental health and aging (pp. 303-327). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Fairchild, H. (1984). School size, per-pupil expenditures, and academic achievement. Review of Public Data Use, 12, 221-229.

Falik, M. M., & Collins, K S. (1996). Women's health: The Commonwealth Fund Survey. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Furnham, A. (1993). Just world beliefs in twelve societies. Journal of Social Psychology, 133(3), 317-329.

Furnham, A., & Gunter, B. (1984). Just world beliefs and attitudes towards the poor. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 265-269.

Geltman, P. L., Meyers, A. F., Greenberg, J., & Zuckerman, B. (1996, Spring). Commentary: Welfare reform and children's health. Washington, DC: Center for Health Policy Research.

Katz, M. B. (1989). The undeserving poor: From the war on poverty to the war on welfare. New York: Pantheon Books.

Kawachi, L, & Kennedy, B. P. (1997, April 5). Socioeconomic determinants of health: Health and social cohesion: Why care about income inequality? British Medical Journal, 314, 1037. Lott, B. (in press). Low income parents and the public schools. Journal of Social Issues.

Lott, B., & Bullock, H. E. (in press). Who are the poor? Journal of Social Issues.

McGrath, E., Keita, G. P., Strickland, B. R., & Russo, N. F. (1990). Women and depression. Risk factors and treatment issues. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

McLoyd, V. C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185-204.

National Center for Health Statistics. (1995). Health: United States. Hyattsville, MD: U.S. Public Health Service.

National Congress of American Indians. (2000). Economic development. Washington, DC: Author.

NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund (1997, March). Report from the front lines: The impact of violence on poor women. New York: Author.

Olivera, V., Effland, J. R., & Hamm, S. (1993). Hired farm labor use on fruit, vegetable, and horticultural specialty farms. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. 17

Olson, K., & Pavefti, L. (1997). Personal and family challenges to the successful transition from welfare to work. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.

Parker, S., Greer, S., & Zuckerman, B. (1988). Double jeopardy: The impact of poverty on early childhood development. Pediatric Clinician, North America, 35, 1227-1240.

Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (1996). Immigrant America: A portrait (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Quadagno, J. (1994). The color of welfare: How racism undermined the war on poverty. New York: Oxford University Press.

Raphael, J. (1996). Prisoners of abuse: Policy implications of the relationship between domestic violence and welfare receipt. Clearinghouse Review, 30, 186-194.

Regier, D. A., Farmer, M. E., Rae, D. S., Myers, J. K., Kramer, M., Robins, L. N., George, L. K., Karno, M., & Locke, B. Z. (1993). One-month prevalence of mental disorders in the United States and sociodemographic characteristics: The epiderniologic catchment area study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 88, 35-47.

Reiss, A. J., Jr., & Roth, J. A. (Eds.). (1993). Understanding and preventing violence. Washington, DC: National Research Council.

Roper, P., & Weeks, G. (1993). Over half of the women on public assistance in Washington reported physical and sexual abuse as adults. Seattle: Washington State Institute for Public Policy.

Rubin, Z., & Peplau, L. (1975). Who believes in a just world? Journal of Social Issues, 31(3), 65-89.

U.S. Administration on Aging. (1999). Profile of older Americans: 1999. Washington, DC: Author.

U.S. Census Bureau, U.S. Department of Commerce. (1999, September). Poverty in the United States: Current population reports. Consumer income. Washington, DC: Author.

Wilk, V. A. (1986). The occupational health of migrant and seasonal farm workers in the United States (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Farm

XXV. PUBLIC POLICY & SOCIAL ISSUES

1. 1956

Psychology as a science is dedicated to the discovery of truth. Psychology as a profession is dedicated to the application of that scientific knowledge in the interests of human welfare. The American Psychological Association will, therefore, take an active position on any public policy or issue which jeopardizes these fundamental scientific and professional goals.

In areas other than the above, it is not the function of the American Psychological Association to attempt to influence the formulation of public policy. However, it may be appropriate for the Association to take a position with respect to such policy when it is being formally determined or implemented, where the criterion for action is the special competence of psychology as a science and a profession.

XXVI. PUBLIC SECTOR SERVICES FOR SERIOUS MENTALLY ILL

1. August 1990

On the recommendation of the Board of Directors, the Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility, the Board of Ethnic Minority Affairs, the Board of Professional Affairs, the Committee on Women In Psychology, the Committee on Children, Youth and Families, and the Committee on Ethnic Minority Human Resources Development, Council voted to approve the following resolution on priorities for persons with serious and persistent mental Illness:

As originated by Division and 18 and recommended by the Board of Directors, that the Council of Representatives adopt the following resolution:

Resolution on Priorities for Persons with Serious and Persistent Mental Illness

WHEREAS mental health services to persons suffering from serious and persistent mental Illness have historically been and continue to be Inadequate;

WHEREAS the additional burdens of poverty, homelessness, and lack of support systems Increase the Intensity and complexity of the needs of persons with serious and persistent mental Illness and prevent them from leading dignified and productive lives;

THEREFORE be It resolved that the Council of the American Psychological Association directs the Executive Vice President and Chief Executive Officer to take the following actions:

1. Recommend Immediate action to federal, state, and local officials that persons and their families being cared for In the public sector be assured the same standards of care as those In the private sector, Including APA standards for psychological services and the training and credentials of psychologists who work In public service;

2. Encourage graduate and Internship programs In psychology to offer training In the delivery of services to persons with serious and persistent mental Illness of all ages, ethnicity, and gender, Including experiences working with this population and their families, community support systems, and with policy, planning and administrative systems;

3. Promote the Involvement of consumers and their families In the planning and delivery of services and recommend an Increased Integration and coordination of community programs to provide an appropriate continuum of care and services to persons with serious and persistent mental Illness;

4. Encourage periodic and systematic evaluation of treatment and program services to persons with serious and persistent mental Illness to ensure quality, effectiveness, and efficiency of services and advocate Increased funding for research In this area to further understanding of the effects of persistent psychological disability on persons and their families in order to provide services needed to address the needs of this population;

5. Promote career development opportunities for psychologists working in public service to Include making available continuing education programs in planning, systems analysis, and management of public service programs.

XXVII. SCHOOL DROPOUT

1. August 1996

On recommendation of the Board of Directors; the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest; the Board of Professional Affairs; the Board of Educational Affairs; the Board of Scientific Affairs; the Committee for the Advancement of Professional Practice; the Committee on Children, Youth, and Families; the Committee on Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Concerns; the Committee on Women in Psychology; the Committee on Ethnic Minority Affairs; and the Committee on Disability Issues in Psychology; Council voted to adopt the following resolution on School Drop-Out Prevention:

WHEREAS the education of this country's children and youth is a major public policy issue currently embodied in The National Education Goals (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983; National Education Goals Panel, 1993).

WHEREAS education is a key factor in the continued economic development of this country and its ability to enhance the quality of life for its citizens as well as compete within global world markets.

WHEREAS the dropout rate has major implications on the development of a productive labor force currently and in the future (Perez & Salazar, 1993).

WHEREAS education remains a major component in empowering people and increasing the economic, social, and personal well being of all citizens in a pluralistic society.

WHEREAS people of color are disproportionately represented in this country's drop-out casualty rates, where 17.1 percent are African American males, 38.4 percent Hispanic males, in comparison to a white male drop-out rate of 13.3 percent (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990).

WHEREAS female drop-out rates for women of color are also disproportionate, with 17.1 percent African American, and 29.6 percent Hispanic rates, in comparison to 11.1 percent for white females (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1990).

WHEREAS early in the 21st century, one third of the population of the United States will be an ethnic minority group member (Sue, 1991), who typically suffer from staggering drop-out rates that in some cities approach the 50 percent mark of its students (Chapa & Valencia, 1993).

WHEREAS a high drop-out rate diminishes the pool of qualified people from diverse backgrounds who will enter the professional and political ranks, thereby making their representation among many of the policy and decision making agencies in this country limited.

WHEREAS certain populations of students including, but not limited to gay and lesbian youth (Remafedi, 1987), children and youth with disabilities (Wagner, Blackorly, and Hebbela, 1993) and children and youth from diverse economic backgrounds are also at risk of dropping out.

WHEREAS any dropout prevention policy formulation also needs to incorporate research on gender differences, teenage pregnancy, and the role of the family and community in rate differences, causes, and prevention strategies.

WHEREAS there is a lack of a well developed education policy dealing with dropout rates and prevention as they relate to specific at-risk groups and the need for program specificity (e.g., Chapa & Valencia, 1993).

WHEREAS there is a lack of coordination between researchers on child and adolescent development and educational policy makers (Wilcox & Vincent, 1987).

THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association (APA) supports the development, implementation, and evaluation of school dropout prevention strategies. APA should work to increase the participation of psychology and psychologists in assisting in national, state, and local efforts to prevent school dropout. APA's efforts would involve consulting with leading experts and active inter-directorate collaboration within APA and with other major professional organizations involved with psychological aspects of children's schooling and development. The active involvement of parents and students as client/consumers in this process, must also be a major component of any initiative undertaken by APA.

Chapa, J., & Valencia, R. (1993). Latino Population Growth, Demographic Characteristics, and Educational Stagnation: An Examination of Recent Trends. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 165-187.

National Education Goals Panel (1993). The national education goals report. Volume one: The national report. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

National Education Goals Panel (1993). The national education goals report. Volume two: State reports. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Perez, S., & Salazar, D. (1993). Economic, Labor Force, and Social Implications of Latino Educational and Population Trends. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 188-229.

Reyes, P. & Valencia, R. (1993). Educational Policy and the Growing Latino Student Population: Problems and Prospects. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 15(2), 258-283.

Remafedi, G. (1987). Male homosexuality: The adolescent perspective. Pediatrics, 79, 326-330.

Sue, S. (1991). Ethnicity and Culture in Psychological Research and Practice. In J.D. Goodchilds (Ed.) Psychological Perspectives on Human Diversity in America. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

United States Bureau of the Census (1990). 1990 Census of Population, CPH-L-96.

Wagner, M., Blackorly, J., Hebbela, K. (1993). Special education report - Beyond the report card: Secondary school performance for youth with disabilities, a report from the longitudinal transition survey. Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.

Wilcox, B.L., & Vincent, T. (1987). School Dropout: A Federal Perspective. Society for Research in Child Development, 11(3), 1-12.

XXVIII. SEXUAL ORIENTATION

1. 1975

1. The American Psychological Association supports the action taken on December 15, 1973, by the American Psychiatric Association, removing homosexuality from that Association's official list of mental disorders. The American Psychological Association therefore adopts the following resolution:

Homosexuality, per se, implies no impairment in judgement, stability, reliability, or general social or vocational capabilities:

Further, the American Psychological Association urges all mental health professionals to take the lead in removing the stigma of metal illness that has long been associated with homosexual orientations.

2. Regarding discrimination against homosexuals, the American Psychological Association adopts the following resolution concerning their civil and legal rights:

The American Psychological Association deplores all public and private discrimination in such areas as employment, housing, public accommodation, and licensing against those who engage in or who have engaged in homosexual activities and declares that no burden of proof of such judgement, capacity, or reliability shall be placed upon these individuals greater than that imposed on any other persons. Further, the American Psychological Association supports and urges the enactment of civil rights legislation at the local, state, and federal level that would offer citizens who engage in acts of homosexuality the same protections now guaranteed to others on the basis of race, creed, color, etc. Further, the American Psychological Association supports and urges the repeal of all discriminatory legislation singling out homosexual acts by consenting adults in private. (1975)

Council voted to adopt as APA policy the following resolution concerning Colorado Amendment 2:

Whereas referenda to limit anti-discrimination legislation as it applies to lesbian, gay and bisexual persons have been proposed in several states and passed in one;

And whereas the American Psychological Association has repeatedly stated its position that lesbian, gay, and bisexual orientation should not be the basis for discrimination;

And whereas the American Psychological Association deplores the use of scientifically unsound research to support discrimination against lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons;

Therefore be it resolved that the American Psychological Association opposes the implementation of any state constitutional amendment or statute that prohibits anti-discrimination legislation for lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons because there is no basis for such discrimination and such discrimination is detrimental to mental health and the public good; and

Therefore be it resolved that the Council of Representatives of the American Psychological Association directs the chief executive officer to undertake immediate initiative to disseminate scientific information on sexual orientation to the state psychological associations and provide support in their advocacy efforts in the prevention of or challenge to state legislation that prohibits anti-discrimination for lesbian, gay, or bisexual persons; and

Therefore be it resolved that the CEO of the American Psychological Association take immediate steps to disseminate scientific information on sexual orientation to policy makers and to the public and to provide consultation to parties involved in constitutional challenges to legislation that prohibits anti-discrimination for lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons in those states in which such constitutional challenges are occurring; and

Therefore be it resolved that the CEO of the American Psychological Association will consult with the relevant state psychological association and will immediately consider a motion at the next Board of Directors meeting and the Council of Representatives meeting to neither sponsor meetings nor authorize participation of its representatives in meetings in any state in which a constitutional amendment or statute that prohibits anti-discrimination legislation for lesbian, gay, or bisexual persons has the force of law except when the purpose of the meeting is to work publicly to overturn the law in conjunction with state and local organizations.

2. 1981

Whereas the American Psychological Association deplores all public and private discrimination in such areas as employment, housing, public accommodation, and licensing against those who engage in or have engaged in homosexual activities and declares that no burden of proof of such judgement, capacity, or reliability shall be placed upon these individuals greater than that imposed on any other person,

Be it resolved that the American Psychological Association protests personnel actions against any teacher solely because of sexual orientation or affectional preference.

3. 1987

WHEREAS, The American Psychological Association has been or record since 1975 that "homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgement, stability, reliability, or general social and vocational capabilities"; and

WHEREAS, it appears that the ICD-9-CM is widely used either by mandate or choice by many psychologists nationwide in connection with third-party reimbursement, institutional-based service delivery, and research; and

WHEREAS, the Council of Representatives already has urged APA members not to use the proposed DSM-III-R diagnoses of Periluteal Phase Disorder, Self-Defeating Personality Disorder, and Sadistic Personality Disorder because they lack adequate scientific basis and are potentially dangerous to women:

BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association: Urge its members not to use the "302.0 Homosexuality" diagnosis in the current ICD-9-CM or the "302-00 Ego-dystonic Homosexuality" diagnosis in the current DSM-III or future editions of either document.

4. August 1991

On the recommendation of the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest and the Board of Directors, Council voted to adopt the following resolution on advertising In APA publications by the U.S. Military:

WHEREAS the American Psychological Association (APA) deplores discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation; and

WHEREAS APA will not let Its publications, as advertising media, be used by others In support of discriminatory employment practices; and

WHEREAS the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) maintains a policy that homosexual orientation Is "Incompatible with military service"; and

WHEREAS the DoD will not knowingly admit bisexual, lesbian or gay Individuals to military service, Including research and clinical internship programs In psychology; and

WHEREAS an average of 1,5W men and women are unfairly discharged from military service each year because their sexual orientation becomes; known;

THEREFORE be it resolved that the APA opposes the DoD policy which finds homosexual orientation "Incompatible with military service"; and

Be it further resolved that APA take a leadership role among national organizations in seeking to change this discriminatory DoD policy, and

Be it further resolved that APA will not permit Its publications, as advertising media, to be used by the DoD after December 31, 1992, unless the DoD policy that homosexual orientation "is incompatible with military service" has been rescinded by that date."

In addition, Council approved the Inclusion of the following statement with all advertisements from the U.S. Military Services:

"Policies of the Department of Defense prohibit military service for individuals of homosexual orientation. Applicants must meet age and physical requirements".

Advertisements include printed announcements In APA publications, mailings using APA mailing lists and literature distributed at APA meetings.

5. August 1991

Council voted to adopt the following resolution on research on sexual behavior:

WHEREAS our nation lacks sane of the basic understanding of human sexual behavior necessary to develop effective programs to prevent unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and HIV Infection; and

WHEREAS limiting behavioral science and prevention research will result In the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV Infection and the loss of lives; and

WHEREAS the Secretary of the Department of Health and Hunan Services (HHS) has recently announced that he would cancel the funding for this research In response to concerns expressed by conservative political groups; and

WHEREAS the HFIS Secretary has prevented NIH from conducting a national survey of sexual behavior known as the Survey of Health and AIDS Risk Prevalence (SHARP) for over the past four years due to conservative political pressure; and

WHEREAS a recent panel convened by HHS recommended the need to Insulate NIH from politics; and

WHEREAS federally-funded research has profited by the peer-review process at the National Institute of Health (NIH); and

WHEREAS the actions of the Secretary pose a major threat to peer reviewed research in the United States;

THEREFORE be it resolved that the American Psychological Association:

6. August 1992

On the recommendation of the Board of Directors, the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest, the Board of Professional Affairs, the Board of Educational Affairs, and the Committees on Lesbian and Gay Concerns, Children, Youth and Families, Ethnic Minority Affairs, Disability Issues in Psychology, Psychology and AIDS, and the American Psychological Association of Graduate Students, Council voted to adopt as APA policy the following Resolution on Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Youths in the Schools:

WHEREAS society's attitudes, behaviors, and tendency to render lesbian, gay and bisexual persons invisible permeate all societal institutions including the family and school system; (Gonsiorek, 1988; Hetrick & Martin, 1988; Ponse, 1978; Uribe & Harbeck, 1992)

WHEREAS it is a presumption that all persons, including those who are lesbian, gay, or bisexual, have the right to equal opportunity within all public educational institutions;

WHEREAS current literature suggests that some youths are aware of their status as lesbian, gay, or bisexual persons by early adolescence; (Remafedi, 1987; Savin-Williams, 1990; Slater, 1988; Troiden, 1988)

WHEREAS many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths and youths perceived to belong to these groups face harassment and physical violence in school environments; (Freiberg, 1987; Hetrick & Martin, 1988; Remafedi, 1987; Schaecher, 1988; Uribe & Harbeck, 1992; Whitlock, 1988)

WHEREAS many lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths are at risk for lowered self-esteem and for engaging in self-injurious behaviors, including suicide; (Hetrick & Martin, 1988; Gonsiorek, 1988; Savin-Williams, 1990; Harry, 1989; Gibson, 1989)

WHEREAS gay male and bisexual youths are at an increased risk of HIV infection; (Savin-Williams, 1992)

WHEREAS lesbian, gay and bisexual youths of color have additional challenges to their self-esteem as a result of the negative consequences of discrimination based on both sexual orientation and ethnic/racial minority status; (Garnets & Kimmel, 1991)

WHEREAS lesbian, gay and bisexual youths with physical or mental disabilities are at increased risk due to the negative consequence of societal prejudice toward persons with mental or physical disabilities; (Pendler & Hingsburger, 1991; Hingsburger & Griffiths, 1986)

WHEREAS lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths who are poor or working class may face additional risks; (Gordon, Schroeder & Abrams, 1990)

WHEREAS psychologists affect policies and practices within educational environments;

WHEREAS psychology promotes the individual's development of personal identity including the sexual orientation of all individuals;

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists shall take a leadership role in promoting societal and familial attitudes and behaviors that affirm the dignity and rights, within the educational environments, of all lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths, including those with physical or mental disabilities, and from all ethnic/racial background and classes.

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists support providing a safe and secure educational atmosphere in which all youths, including lesbian, gay and bisexual youths, may obtain an education free from discrimination, harassment, violence, and abuse, and which promotes an understanding and acceptance of self;

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists encourage psychologists to develop and evaluate interventions that foster nondiscriminatory environments, lower risk for HIV infection, and decrease self-injurious behaviors in lesbian, gay and bisexual youths.

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists shall advocate efforts to ensure the funding of basic and applied research on and scientific evaluations of interventions and programs designed to address the issues of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths in the schools, and programs for HIV prevention targeted at gay and bisexual youths.

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association and the National Association of School Psychologists shall work with other organizations in efforts to accomplish these ends.

7. February 1996

On recommendation of the Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public Interest; Board of Professional Affairs; Board of Educational Affairs; Committees for the Advancement of Professional Practice; Children, Youth, and Families; Disability Issues in Psychology; Lesbian and Gay Concerns; Ethnic Minority Affairs; Women in Psychology; and Professional Practice and Standards, Council voted to approve the following revised resolution on Sexuality Education (bracketed material to be deleted):

WHEREAS American youth are exhibiting behavior leading to increasing rates of life-threatening or health-compromising sexually transmitted diseases that in part reflect ignorance of sexual health promoting behaviors (National Guidelines Task Force, 1991);

WHEREAS youth infection with HIV/AIDS has reached an epidemic level, particularly among young gay men and ethnic minority youth (National Commission on AIDS, 1993), in part because of lack of knowledge and lack of training about protective behaviors;

WHEREAS children are becoming involved in sexual activities at younger ages (Ravoira & Cherry, 1992; Singh & Wulf, 1990);

WHEREAS over one million teenage women become pregnant annually (National Guidelines Task Force, 1991) and approximately 300,000 of these teenagers become homeless or runaways or both (Ravoira & Cherry, 1992);

WHEREAS the prevalence of sexual intercourse appears to be higher among youth who did not receive sexuality education (Furstenberg & Crawford, 1986);

WHEREAS youth whose sexual orientation or whose values, beliefs, and practices differ from those deemed acceptable by many in our society are subject to persistent, subtle, or overt harassment and violence which may lead to suicide (Schaecher, 1988);

WHEREAS youth with a physical or mental disability may be more vulnerable to sexual coercion;

WHEREAS stranger rape, date rape, sexual abuse, and other forms of sexual violence are traumatic events that have become increasingly prevalent (Koss et al., 1994);

WHEREAS sexual health, personal self-esteem, and the ability to participate in responsible, caring, and stable relationships, as well as to develop positive interpersonal social attitudes can be promoted through education (Gordon & Schroeder, 1995);

WHEREAS the American Psychological Association has a necessary and important role in influencing public policy to the benefit and protection of youth in particular and the society in general;

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the APA supports access to information on sexuality as critical to healthy development. Such information should be positive, age appropriate, and culturally suitable, and should respect the choice of abstinence; it should acknowledge women's rights, should foster shared responsibility among males and females for sexual behaviors, and should promote tolerance for sexual diversity; and

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that APA public policy support the development and adoption, including research and evaluation, of such comprehensive sexuality education curricula and programs for the promotion of healthy sexual attitudes and behaviors and the prevention and mitigation of endangering and destructive behaviors. It is to be noted that this resolution does not endorse any particular curriculum, procedure, or site for instruction, [but seeks to promote a choice of means for implementing this resolution].

Furstenberg, F. & Crawford, A. (1986). Teenage sexuality, pregnancy, and child welfare. In J. Laird & A. Hartman (Eds.), Handbook of child welfare: Context, knowledge, and practice. New York: Free Press.

Gordon, B.B. & Schroeder, C. (1995). Sexuality. New York: Plenum.

Koss, M. P., Goodman, L. A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L. F., Keita, G. P., & Russo, N. F. (1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

National Commission on AIDS. (1993). Behavioral and social sciences and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Washington, DC.

National Guidelines Task Force. (1991). Guidelines for comprehensive sexuality education: Kindergarten - 12th grade. New York: Sex Information and Education Council of the U.S.

Ravoira, law. & Cherry, A. (1992). Social bonds and teen pregnancy. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishing Co.

Schaecher, R. (1988). Stresses on lesbian and gay adolescents. Independent Schools, 29-35.

Singh, S. & Wulf, D. (1990). Today's adolescent, tomorrow's parent: A portrait of the Americas. N.Y.: Alan Guttmacher Institute.

8. August 1997

Council voted to change the title of the "Proposed Resolution on Treatments to Alter Sexual Orientation" to the "Resolution on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation" and to adopt the following resolution:

WHEREAS societal ignorance and prejudice about same gender sexual orientation put some gay, lesbian, bisexual and questioning individuals at risk for presenting for "conversion" treatment due to family or social coercion and/or lack of information (Haldeman, 1994);

WHEREAS children and youth experience significant pressure to conform with sexual norms, particularly from their peers;

WHEREAS children and youth often lack adequate legal protection from coercive treatment;

WHEREAS some mental health professionals advocate treatments of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people based on the premise that homosexuality is a mental disorder (e.g., Socarides et al, 1997);

WHEREAS the ethics, efficacy, benefits, and potential for harm of therapies that seek to reduce or eliminate same-gender sexual orientation are under extensive debate in the professional literature and the popular media (Davison, 1991; Haldeman, 1994; Wall Street Journal, 1997);

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that APA affirms the following principles with regard to treatments to alter sexual orientation:

that homosexuality is not a mental disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1973); and that psychologists "do not knowingly participate in or condone unfair discriminatory practices" (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Principle D, p. 1600); and

that "in their work-related activities, psychologists do not engage in unfair discrimination based on … sexual orientation" (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Standard 1.10, p. 1601); and

that "in their work-related activities, psychologists respect the rights of others to hold values, attitudes, and opinions that differ from their own." (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Standard 1.09; p. 1601); and

that "psychologists … respect the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, self-determination and autonomy" (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Principle D, p. 1599); and

that "psychologists are aware of cultural, individual and role differences, including those due to … sexual orientation" and "try to eliminate the effect on their work of biases based on [such] factors" Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Principle D, pp. 1599-1600); and

that "where differences of … sexual orientation … significantly affect psychologist's work concerning particular individuals or groups, psychologists obtain the training, experience, consultation, or supervision necessary to ensure the competence of their services, or they make appropriate referrals" (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Standard 1.08, p. 1601); and

that "psychologists do not make false or deceptive statements concerning … the scientific or clinical basis for … their services," (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Standard 3.03(a), p. 1604); and

that "psychologists attempt to identify situations in which particular interventions … may not be applicable … because of factors such as … sexual orientation" (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Standard 2.04 (c), p. 1603); and

that "psychologists obtain appropriate informed consent to therapy or related procedures" [which] ..generally implies that the (client or patient] (1) has the capacity to consent, (2) has been informed of significant information concerning the procedure, (3) has freely and without undue influence expressed consent, and (4) consent has been appropriately documented" (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, Standard 4.02(a), 1992, p. 1605); and

"when persons are legally incapable of giving informed consent, psychologists obtain informed permission from a legally authorized person, if such substitute consent is permitted by law" (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Standard 4.02(b), p. 1605);.

That "psychologists (1) inform those persons who are legally incapable of giving informed consent about the proposed interventions in a manner commensurate with the persons' psychological capacities, (2) seek their assent to those interventions, and (3) consider such persons' preferences and best interests" (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct, American Psychological Association, 1992, Standard 4.02(c), p. 1605); and

that the American Psychological Association "urges all mental health professionals to take the lead in removing the stigma of mental illness that has long been associated with homosexual orientation" (Conger, 1975, p. 633); and

therefore be it further resolved that the American Psychological Association opposes portrayals of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth and adults as mentally ill due to their sexual orientation and supports the dissemination of accurate information about sexual orientation, and mental health, and appropriate interventions in order to counteract bias that is based in ignorance or unfounded beliefs about sexual orientation.

American Psychiatric Association. (1973). Position Statement on Homosexuality and Civil Rights. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131(4), 497.

American Psychological Association. (1992). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct. American Psychologist, 47(12), 1597-1611.

Conger, J.J. (1975). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1974: Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Representatives. American Psychologist, 30, 620-651.

Haldeman, D.C. (1994). The Practice and Ethics of Sexual Orientation Conversion Therapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(2), 221-227.

Socarides, C., Kaufman, B., Nicolosi, J., Satinover, J., and Fitzgibbons, R. (1997, January 9). Don't forsake homosexuals who want help. Wall Street Journal, p. .

Letters to the Editor. (1997, January 23). Wall Street Journal, p. A17.

9. August 1998

Council voted to adopt the following resolution:

Proposed APA Policy Statement on Legal Benefits for Same-Sex Couples

WHEREAS there is evidence that homosexuality per se implies no impairment in judgment, stability, reliability, or general social and vocational capabilities (Conger, 1975) for individuals;

WHEREAS legislation, other public policy, and private policy on issues related to same-sex couples is currently under development in many places in North America (e.g., Canadian Psychological Association, 1996);

WHEREAS the scientific literature has found no significant difference between different-sex couples and same-sex couples that justify discrimination (Kurdek, 1994;1983; Peplau, 1991);

WHEREAS scientific research has not found significant psychological or emotional differences between the children raised in different-sex versus same-sex households (Patterson, 1994);

WHEREAS APA has, as a long established policy, deplored "all public and private discrimination against gay men and lesbians in such areas as employment, housing, administration, and licensing ..." and has consistently urged "the repeal of all discriminatory legislation against lesbians and gay men" (Conger, 1975);

WHEREAS denying the legal benefits that the license of marriage offers to same-sex households (including, but not limited to, property rights, health care decision-making, estate planning, tax consequences, spousal privileges in medical emergency situations and co-parental adoption of children) cannot be justified as fair and equal treatment;

WHEREAS the absence of access to these benefits constitutes a significant psychosocial stressor for lesbians, gay men, and their families.

WHEREAS APA provides benefits to its members' and employees' domestic partners equivalent to those provided to members' and employees' spouses;

WHEREAS psychological knowledge can be used to inform the current public and legal debate on "same-sex marriage" (e.g., Baehr v. Levin);

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that APA supports the provision to same-sex couples of the legal benefits that typically accrue as a result of marriage to same-sex couples who desire and seek the legal benefits; and

THEREFORE BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA shall provide relevant psychological knowledge to inform the public discussion in this area and assist state psychological associations and divisions in offering such information as needed.

Canadian Psychological Association. (1996). Policy statement on equality for lesbians, gay men, and their relationships and families. [Available from the Canadian Psychological Association.]

Conger, J.J. (1975). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, Incorporated, for the year 1974: Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Representatives. American Psychologist, 30, 620-651.

Kurdek, L.A. (1993). The nature and correlates of relationship quality in gay, lesbian, and heterosexual cohabiting couples: A test of the individual difference, interdependence, and discrepancy models. In B. Greene & G.M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical issues (pp. 133-155). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Patterson, C.J. (1993). Children of the lesbian baby boom: Behavioral adjustment, self-concepts, and sex role theory. In B. Greene & G.M. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical issues (pp. 156-175). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Peplau. A.L. (1991). Lesbian and gay relationships. In J.C. Gonsiorek and J.D. Weinrich (Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy (pp. 177-196). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

10. February 2000

Council voted to adopt the Guidelines for Psychotherapy with Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Clients. [Appendix N XVII.10]

Council Policy Manual: Table of Contents | Introduction | A. Elections | B. Awards | C. Membership | D. Human Resources | E. Ethics | F. Board of Directors | G. Divisions and State and Provincial Associations | H. Organization of APA | I. Publications and Communcations | J. Convention Affairs | K. Educational Affairs | L. Professional Affairs | M. Scientific Affairs | N. Public Interest - Part 1 | N. Public Interest - Part 2 | N. Public Interest - Part 3 | N. Public Interest - Part 4 | N. Public Interest - Part 5 | O. Ethnic Minority Affairs | P. International Affairs | Q. Central Office | R. Financial Affairs