Resolution on Interrogations of Criminal Suspects

Approved by the APA Council of Representatives, February 2022

WHEREAS law enforcement officers, upon gaining a confession from a criminal suspect, often close their investigation, deem the crime solved, and sometimes overlook exculpatory evidence or other possible leads–even in cases in which the confession is internally inconsistent, contradicted by external evidence, or the product of coercive interrogation (Drizin & Leo, 2004; Findley & Scott, 2006; Hirsch, 2007; Kassin & Gudjonsson, 2004; Leo & Ofshe, 1998);

WHEREAS prosecutors, upon learning of a suspect’s confession, tend to charge suspects with the highest number and types of offenses, set bail higher, are less likely to dismiss the charges, and offer comparably less favorable plea deals (Drizin & Leo, 2004; Leo, 1996; Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Redlich, Yan, Norris, & Bushway, 2018);

WHEREAS youth, and individuals with developmental, mental, and intellectual disabilities are limited in their understanding of the Constitutional rights to silence and to counsel, lack the capacity to weigh the consequences of a rights waiver, and are more likely to waive their rights (Abramovitch, Higgins-Biss & Biss, 1993; Abramovitch, Peterson-Badali & Rohan, 1995: Colwell, Cruise, Guy et al., 2005; Cooper & Zapf, 2008; Clare & Gudjonsson, 1991, 1995; Everington & Fulero, 1999; Fulero & Everington, 1995; Goldstein, Condie, Kalbeitzer et al., 2003; Grisso, 1980, 1981; O’Connell, Garmoe & Goldstein, 2005; Redlich, Silverman & Steiner, 2003; Rogers et al., 2007; Singh & Gudjonsson, 1992; Viljoen, Klaver, & Roesch, 2005; Viljoen & Roesch, 2005; Wall & Furlong, 1985); a pattern that also afflicts adults without disabilities who are under stress (Rogers, Gillard, Wooley, & Fiduccia, 2011; Scherr & Madon, 2013);

WHEREAS interrogations that are excessive in length, include the presentation of false evidence, or bluffs that imply evidence, or include implicit or explicit promises of leniency, increase anxiety, create an incentive to escape the situation, mislead the suspect into believing that a confession is in one’s best interests, and thereby increase the risk of false confessions (Drizin & Leo, 2004; Horselenberg, Merkelbach, & Josephs, 2003; Kassin & Kiechel, 1996; Kassin & McNall, 1991; Klaver et al., 2008; Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Meissner, Redlich, Michael, Evans, Camiletti, Bhatt, & Brandon, 2014; Nash & Wade, 2009; Ofshe & Leo, 1997a, 1997b; Perillo & Kassin, 2011; Redlich & Goodman, 2003; Redlich, Shteynberg, & Nirider, 2020; Russano et al., 2005; Swanner, Beike, & Cole, 2010; White, 2001);

WHEREAS youth and individuals with disabilities are more susceptible to involuntary and false confessions because of modern-day, accusatorial, interrogation techniques and because of increased levels of suggestibility, obedience to authority, and vulnerability to pressure, and decreased maturity of judgment (Appelbaum & Appelbaum, 1994; Cleary, 2017; Everington & Fulero, 1999; Gudjonsson, Sigurdsson, Sigfusdottir, Asgeirsdottir, Gonzalez, & Young, 2016; Kassin et al., 2010; Owen-Kostelnik, Reppucci, & Meyer, 2006; Redlich, 2004; Redlich & Kassin, 2009);

WHEREAS innocent persons have falsely confessed to committing offenses of which they have been accused only later to be exonerated (Borchard, 1932; Drizin & Leo, 2004; Garrett, 2008; Gudjonsson, 1992, 2003, 2018; Kassin, 1997; Kassin & Gudjonsson, 2004; Kassin & Wrightsman, 1985; Lassiter, 2004; Lassiter & Meissner, 2010; Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Scheck, Neufeld, & Dwyer, 2000; https://www.innocenceproject.org/; https://www.law.umich. edu/special/exoneration/Pages/about.aspx;) 

WHEREAS false confessions are highly counterintuitive (Kassin, 2017; Kaplan et al., 2020; Leo & Liu, 2009; Levine, Kim, & Blair, 2010);

WHEREAS false confessions, as seen in the confessions of defendants who were ultimately exonerated, typically contain vivid and accurate details about the offense and victim, facts that were not in the public domain, as well as other indicia of credibility (e.g., statements of motivation, apologies and remorse, corrected errors), indicating that the innocent confessor obtained the information from interrogators’ leading questions or other secondary sources of information, such as media accounts, crime scene photos or outings, or neighborhood rumors (Appleby, Hasel, & Kassin, 2009; Garrett, 2010, 2015; Kassin, 2006; Leo, 2008; Leo & Ofshe, 1998, Ofshe & Leo 1997a, 1997b);

WHEREAS confessions are particularly potent forms of evidence that jurors and others do not fully discount—even when the confessions are judged to be coerced (Drizin & Leo, 2004; Kassin & Neumann, 1997; Kassin & Sukel, 1997; Kassin & Wrightsman, 1980; Lassiter & Geers, 2004; Leo & Ofshe, 1998; Neuschatz et al., 2008; Redlich, Ghetti, & Quas, 2008; Redlich, Quas, & Ghetti, 2008; Wallace & Kassin, 2012);

WHEREAS jurors, law enforcement officers, and other triers of fact have difficulty distinguishing true and false confessions (Honts, Kassin, & Craig, 2014; Kassin, Norwick, & Meissner, 2005); 

WHEREAS confessions, in large part due to their potency, increase the likelihood of true and false guilty pleas, in which defendants waive a whole host of constitutional rights (Leo, 1996; Redlich, Bibas, Edkins, & Madon, 2017; Redlich et al., 2018; Scherr, Redlich, & Kassin, 2019);

WHEREAS confessions can corrupt other evidence, including eyewitness identifications, polygraph interpretations, fingerprint and handwriting match identifications, alibi witness statements, and other forensic evidence (Elaad, Ginton, & Ben-Shakhar, 1994; Hasel & Kassin, 2009; Kassin, Bogart, & Kerner, 2012; Kassin, Dror, & Kukucka, 2013; Kienzle & Levett, 2018; Kukucka & Kassin, 2014; Marion, Kukucka, Collins, Kassin, & Burke, 2016; Scherr et al., 2019);

WHEREAS videotaping of interrogations in their entirety provides an objective and accurate audio-visual record of the interrogation, provides a vehicle by which to resolve disputes about the source of non-public details in a suspect’s confession, and has the potential to deter interrogators from using inappropriate tactics and deter defense attorneys from making frivolous claims of police coercion (American Bar Association, 2004; Boetig, Vinson, & Weidel, 2006; Cassell, 1996a, 1996b; Drizin & Colgan, 2004; Geller, 1994; Gudjonsson, 2003; Kassin et al., 2010; Kassin, Kukucka, Lawson, & DeCarlo, 2014; Kassin, Kukucka, Lawson, & DeCarlo, 2017; Kassin, Russano, Amrom, Hellgren, Kukucka, & Lawson, 2019; Leo, 1996c; Slobogin, 2003; Sullivan, 2004; The Justice Project, 2007);

WHEREAS interrogations video recorded from a “neutral” camera perspective—one focusing attention equally on suspects and interrogators—produce less prejudiced judgments or interpretations of suspects’ statements and behaviors than the more typical “suspect-focus” camera perspective that directs greater attention onto suspects than interrogators (Landström, Roos af Hjelmsäter, Granhag, 2007; Lassiter, 2002, 2010; Lassiter, Diamond, Schmidt, & Elek, 2007; Lassiter, Geers, Handley, Weiland, & Munhall, 2002; Lassiter, Geers, Munhall, Handley, & Beers, 2001; Lassiter, Ware, Lindberg, & Ratcliff, 2010;

WHEREAS the majority of police investigators support recording interrogations fully from start to finish (Kassin, Leo, Meissner, Richman, Colwell, Leach &, La Fon, 2007; Sullivan, 2004; Sullivan et al., 2008);

WHEREAS initial evidence shows that concerns of those opposed to recording interrogations are not well-founded and, instead, suspects informed that they were being video recorded spoke as often as much as those not informed, were just as likely to waive Miranda rights and make admissions and confessions, and ultimate case dispositions were no different (Kassin, Russano, Amrom, Hellgren, Kukucka, & Lawson, 2019);

WHEREAS research suggests adversarial, accusatorial, and threatening interrogation methods increase innocent suspects’ stress levels, which may increase risk for false confessions as interrogation time increases (Guyll et al., 2013; Guyll et al., 2019; Normile, & Scherr, 2018);

WHEREAS research suggests non-adversarial, informationgathering interrogation methods result in fewer false confessions while preserving the rates of true confessions when compared to adversarial, accusatorial interrogation methods (Meissner et al., 2014);

WHEREAS the findings set forth in this resolution regarding the phenomenon of false confessions are the product of established research methods and propositions that are widely accepted in a recent survey of experts (Kassin, Redlich, Alceste, & Luke, 2018); and as evidenced by the AP-LS scientific review paper (Kassin et al., 2010), which was carefully vetted (Thompson, 2010); a total of seven amicus briefs on false confessions submitted by the American Psychological Association; numerous publications in peer reviewed journals and books that are cited in the resolution and its supporting references;

WHEREAS there are documented racial and ethnic disparities in the policing and prosecution of Black, Indigenous, and other People of Color (Kovera, 2019), and theoretical reasons to believe that Black suspects (Najdowski, 2011), as well as other People of Color, may be at heightened risk of falsely confessing; and

WHEREAS, as a scientific and educational organization, the American Psychological Association’s mission is in part to promote the application of sound research findings to advance the public welfare;

THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED that the American Psychological Association recommends that all custodial interviews and interrogations of felony suspects be video recorded in their entirety and with a “neutral” camera angle that focuses equally on the suspect and interrogator;

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends, recognizing that the risk of false confession is increased with extended interrogation times, that law enforcement agencies consider placing limits on the length of time that suspects are interrogated;

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that law enforcement agencies, prosecutors, and the courts recognize the risks of eliciting a false confession by interrogations that involve the presentation of false evidence;

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that police, prosecutors, and the courts recognize the risks of eliciting a false confession that involve minimization “themes” that communicate promises of leniency;

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that those who interrogate individuals receive special training regarding the risk of eliciting false confessions, with special attention paid to the heightened risk for suspects who are young (with particular attention paid to developmental level and trauma history), are cognitively impaired, have impaired mental health functioning, or in other ways are vulnerable to manipulation; and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that particularly vulnerable suspect populations, including youth, persons with developmental and intellectual disabilities, and persons with mental illness, be provided special and professional protection during interrogations such as being accompanied and advised by an attorney or professional advocate.

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that researchers examine whether suspects from marginalized communities (e.g., BIPOC, LGBTQIA+, women) experience disparate impact from high-risk interrogation techniques.

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that APA recommends that triers of fact should be presented with testimony from expert witnesses regarding the science of interrogations and confessions, and in particular the difficulties distinguishing between true and false confessions.

American Psychological Association. (2022). Resolution on interrogations of criminal suspects. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/about/policy/interrogations.aspx

Abramovitch, R., Higgins-Biss, K., & Biss, S. (1993). Young persons’ comprehension of waivers in criminal proceedings. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 35, 309–322.

Abramovitch, R., Peterson-Badali, M., & Rohan, M. (1995). Young people’s understanding and assertion of their rights to silence and legal counsel. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 37, 1–18.

American Bar Association (2004). Resolution 8A – Videotaping custodial interrogations. Approved February 9, 2004.

Appelbaum, K. L. & Appelbaum, P. S. (1994). Criminal justice-related competencies in defendants with mental retardation. Journal of Psychiatry and Law, 22, 483–503.

Appleby, S. C., Hasel, L. E., & Kassin, S. M. (2013). Police-induced confessions: An empirical analysis of their content and impact. Psychology, Crime and Law, 19, 111–128.

Boetig, B. P., Vinson, D. M., & Weidel, B. R. (2006). Revealing incommunicado. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 75 (12), 1–8.

Borchard, E. M. (1932). Convicting the innocent: Sixty-five actual errors of criminal justice. Yale University Press.

Cassell, P. G. (1996a). Miranda’s social costs: An empirical reassessment. Northwestern University Law Review, 90, 387–499.

Cassell, P. G. (1996b). All benefits, no costs: The grand illusion of Miranda’s defenders. Northwestern University Law Review, 90, 1084–1124.

Clare, I., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (1991). Recall and understanding of the caution and rights in police detention among persons of average intellectual ability and persons with a mild mental handicap. Issues in Criminological and Legal Psychology, 1, 34–42.

Clare, I., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (1995). The vulnerability of suspects with intellectual disabilities during police interviews: A review and experimental study of decision- making. Mental Handicap Research, 8, 110–128.

Cleary, H.M.D. (2017). Applying the lessons of developmental psychology to the study of juvenile interrogations: New directions for research, policy, and practice. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23, 118–130.

Colwell, L., Cruise, K., Guy, L., McCoy, W., Fernandez, K., & Ross, H. (2005). The influence of psychosocial maturity on male juvenile offenders’ comprehension and understanding of the Miranda warning. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 33, 444–454.

Cooper, V. G., & Zapf, P. A. (2008). Psychiatric patients’ comprehension of Miranda rights. Law and Human Behavior, 32, 390–405.

Drizin, S. A., & Colgan, B. (2004). Tales from the juvenile confession front: A guide to how standard police interrogation tactics can produce coerced and false confessions from juvenile suspects. In G.D. Lassiter (Ed.), Interrogations, confessions, and entrapment (pp. 127–162). Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

Drizin, S. A., & Leo, R.A. (2004). The problem of false confessions in the post-DNA world. North Carolina Law Review, 82, 891–1007.

Elaad, E., Ginton, A. and Ben-Shakhar, G. (1994). The effects of prior expectations and outcome knowledge on polygraph examiners’ decisions. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 7, 279–292.

Everington, C., & Fulero, S. (1999). Competence to confess: Measuring understanding and Suggestibility of defendants with mental retardation. Mental Retardation, 37, 212–220.

Findley, K. A., & Scott, M. S. (2006). The multiple dimensions of tunnel vision in criminal cases. Wisconsin Law Review, 2006, 291–397.

Fulero, S., & Everington, C. (1995). Assessing competency to waive Miranda rights in defendants with mental retardation. Law and Human Behavior, 19, 533–545.

Garrett, B. (2010). The substance of false confessions. Stanford Law Review, 62, 1051–1119.

Garrett, B. (2008). Judging Innocence. Columbia Law Review, 108, 55–142.

Garrett, B. L. (2015). Contaminated confessions revisited. Virginia Law Review, 101, 395–454.

Geller, W.A. (1994). Videotaping interrogations and confessions. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, January 1994.

Goldstein, N., Condie, L., Kalbeitzer, R., Osman, D., & Geier, J. (2005). Juvenile offenders’ Miranda rights comprehension and self-reported likelihood of false confessions. Assessment, 10, 359–369.

Grisso, T. (1980). Juveniles’ capacities to waive Miranda rights: An empirical analysis. California Law Review, 68, 1134–1166.

Grisso, T. (1981). Juveniles’ waiver of rights: Legal and psychological competence. Plenum.

Gudjonsson, G. H. (1992). The psychology of interrogations, confessions, and testimony. Wiley.

Gudjonsson, G. H. (2003). The psychology of interrogations and confessions: A handbook. John Wiley & Sons.

Gudjonsson, G. H. (2018). The psychology of false confessions: Forty years of science and practice. John Wiley & Sons.

Gudjonsson, G. H., Sigurdsson, J. F., Sigfusdottir, I. D., Asgeirsdottir, B. B., Gonzalez, R. A., & Young, S. (2016). A national epidemiological study investigating risk factors for police interrogation and false confession among juveniles and young persons. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51, 359–367.

Guyll, M., Madon, S., Yang, Y., Lannin, D. G., Scherr, K., & Greathouse, S. (2013). Innocence and resisting confession during interrogation: Effects on physiologic activity. Law and Human Behavior, 37(5), 366–375.

Guyll, M., Yang, Y., Madon, S., Smalarz, L., & Lannin, D. G. (2019). Mobilization and resistance in response to interrogation threat. Law and Human Behavior, 43(4), 307–318. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000337.suppopens in new window (Supplemental)

Hasel, L. E., & Kassin, S. M. (2009). On the presumption of evidentiary independence: Can confessions corrupt eyewitness identifications? Psychological Science, 20, 122–126.

Honts, C. R., Kassin, S. M., & Craig, R. A. (2014). ‘I’d know a false confession if I saw one’: A constructive replication with juveniles. Psychology, Crime & Law, 20(7), 695–704.

Horselenberg, R., Merckelbach, H., & Josephs, S. (2003). Individual differences and false confessions: A conceptual replication of Kassin and Kiechel (1996). Psychology, Crime and Law, 9, 1–18.

Kaplan, J., Cutler, B. L., Leach, A.-M., Marion, S., & Eastwood, J. (2020). Perceptions of coercion in interrogation: Comparing expert and lay opinions. Psychology, Crime & Law, 4, 384–401. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2019.1669597opens in new window

Kassin, S. M. (1997). The psychology of confession evidence. American Psychologist, 52, 221–233.

Kassin, S. M. (2008). False confessions: Causes, consequences, and implications for reform. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 249–253.

Kassin, S. M. (2006). A critical appraisal of modern police interrogations. In T. Williamson (Ed.), Investigative interviewing: Rights, research, regulation (pp. 207–228). Willan Publishing.

Kassin, S. M. (2017). False confessions: How can psychology so basic be so counterintuitive? American Psychologist, 72, 951–964.

Kassin, S. M., Drizin, S. A., Grisso, T., Gudjonsson, G. H., Leo, R. A., & Redlich, A. D. (2010). Police- induced confessions: Risk factors and recommendations. Law and Human Behavior, 34, 3–38.

Kassin, S. M., & Gudjonsson, G. H. (2004). The psychology of confession evidence: A review of the literature and issues. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 5, 35–69

Kassin, S. M., & Kiechel, K. L. (1996). The social psychology of false confessions: Compliance, internalization, and confabulation. Psychological Science, 7, 125–128.

Kassin, S. M., Kukucka, J., Lawson, V. Z., & DeCarlo, J. (2014). Does video recording alter the behavior of police during interrogation?: Mock crime-and-investigation study. Law and Human Behavior, 38, 73–83.

Kassin, S. M., Kukucka, J., Lawson, V. Z., & DeCarlo, J. (2017). Police reports of mock suspect interrogations: A test of accuracy and perception. Law and Human Behavior, 41, 230–243.

Kassin, S. M., Leo, R. A., Meissner, C. A., Richman, K. D., Colwell, L. H., Leach, A., & La Fon, D. (2007). Police interviewing and interrogation: A self-report survey of police practices and beliefs. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 381–400.

Kassin, S. M., & McNall, K. (1991). Police interrogations and confessions: Communicating promises and threats by pragmatic implication. Law and Human Behavior, 15, 233–251.

Kassin, S. M., Meissner, C. A., & Norwick, R. J. (2005). “I’d know a false confession if I saw one”: A comparative study of college students and police investigators. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 211–227.

Kassin, S. M., & Neumann, K. (1997). On the power of confession evidence: An experimental test of the “fundamental difference” hypothesis. Law and Human Behavior, 21, 469–484.

Kassin, S.M., Redlich, A.D., Alceste, F., & Luke, T. (2018). On the “general acceptance” of confessions research: Opinions of the scientific community. American Psychologist, 73, 63–80.

Kassin, S. M., Russano, M. B., Amrom, A. D., Hellgren, J., & Kukucka, J. (2019). Does video recording inhibit crime suspects? Evidence from a fully randomized field experiment. Law and Human Behavior, 43, 45–55.

Kassin, S.M., & Sukel, H. (1997). Coerced confessions and the jury: An experimental test of the “harmless error” rule. Law and Human Behavior, 21, 27–46.

Kassin, S.M., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1980). Prior confessions and mock juror verdicts. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 10, 133–146.

Kassin, S. M., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1985). Confession evidence. In S. Kassin & L. Wrightsman (Eds.), The psychology of evidence and trial procedure. Sage Books.

Kienzle, M. R., & Levett, L. M. (2018). A novel paradigm for examining alibi corroboration and evidence interaction: Does a confession affect the likelihood of alibi corroboration for friends and strangers? Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 24, 353–364.

Klaver, J., Lee, Z., & Rose, V. G. (2008). Effects of personality, interrogation techniques and plausibility in an experimental false confession paradigm. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 13, 71–88.

Kovera, M. B. (2019). Racial disparities in the criminal justice system: Prevalence, causes, and a search for solutions. Journal of Social Issues, 75, 1139–1164. https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/josi.12355

Kukucka, J., & Kassin, S. M. (2014). Do confessions taint perceptions of handwriting evidence? An empirical test of the forensic confirmation bias. Law and Human Behavior, 38, 56–70.

Landström, S., Roos af Hjelmsäter, E., & Granhag, P. A. (2007). The camera perspective bias: A case study. Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 4, 199–208

Lassiter, G. D. (2002). Illusory causation in the courtroom. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 204–208.

Lassiter, G. D. (Ed.) (2004). Interrogations, confessions, and entrapment. Kluwer Academic.

Lassiter, G. D. (2010). Psychological science and sound public policy: Video recording of custodial interrogations. American Psychologist, 65, 768–779.

Lassiter, G. D., Diamond, S. S., Schmidt, H. C., & Elek, J. K. (2007). Evaluating videotaped confessions: Expertise provides no defense against the camera-perspective effect. Psychological Science, 18, 224–226.

Lassiter, G. D., & Geers, A. L. (2004). Bias and accuracy in the evaluation of confession evidence. In G. D. Lassiter (Ed.), Interrogations, confessions and entrapment (pp.197–214). Kluwer/Plenum.

Lassiter, G. D., Geers, A. L., Handley, I. M., Weiland, P. E., & Munhall, P. J., (2002). Videotaped confessions and interrogations: A change in camera perspective alters verdicts in simulated trials. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 867–874.

Lassiter, G. D., Geers, A. L., Munhall, P. J., Handley, I. M., & Beers, M. J. (2001). Videotaped confessions: Is guilt in the eye of the camera? In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, (Vol. 33, pp. 189–254). Academic Press.

Lassiter, G. D., & Meissner, C. A. (Eds.). (2010). Police interrogations and false confessions: Current research, practice, and policy recommendations. American Psychological Association.

Leo, R. A. (1996c). The impact of Miranda revisited. The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 86, 621–692.

Leo, R. A. (2008). Police interrogation and American justice. Harvard University Press.

Leo, R. A., & Ofshe, R. J. (1998). The consequences of false confessions: Deprivations of liberty and miscarriages of justice in the age of psychological interrogation. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 88, 429–496.

Levine, T. R., Kim, R. K., & Blair, J. P. (2010). (In)accuracy at detecting true and false confessions and denials: An initial test of a projected motive model of veracity judgments. Human Communication Research, 36, 81–101.

Meissner, C. A., Redlich, A. D., Michael, S. W., Evans, J. R., Camilletti, C. R., Bhatt, S., & Brandon, S. (2014). Accusatorial and information gathering interrogation methods and their effects on true and false confessions: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 10, 459–486.

Najdowski, C. J. (2011). Stereotype threat in criminal interrogations: Why innocent Black suspects are at risk for confessing falsely. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 17(4), 562–591.

Nash, R. A., & Wade, K. A. (2009). Innocent but proven guilty: Using false video evidence to elicit false confessions and create false beliefs. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23, 624–637.

Neuschatz, J. S., Lawson, D. S., Swanner, J. K., Meissner, C. A., & Neuschatz, J. S. (2008). The effects of accomplice witnesses and jailhouse informants on jury decision making. Law and Human Behavior, 32, 137–149.

Neuschatz, J. S. (2008). The effects of accomplice witnesses and jailhouse informants on jury decision making. Law and Human Behavior, 32, 137–149.

Normile, C. J., & Scherr, K. C. (2018). Police tactics and guilt status uniquely influence suspects’ physiologic reactivity and resistance to confess. Law and Human Behavior, 42(6), 497–506. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000306opens in new window

O’Connell, M. J., Garmoe, W., & Goldstein, N. E. S. (2005). Miranda comprehension in adults with mental retardation and the effects of feedback style on suggestibility. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 359–369.

Ofshe, R. J., & Leo, R.A. (1997a). The social psychology of police interrogation: The theory and classification of true and false confessions. Studies in Law, Politics, and Society, 16, 189–251.

Ofshe, R. J., & Leo, R. A. (1997b). The decision to confess falsely: Rational choice and irrational action. Denver University Law Review, 74, 979– 1122.

Owen-Kostelnik, J., Reppucci, N. D., & Meyer, J. R. (2006). Testimony and interrogation of minors: Assumptions about maturity and morality. American Psychologist, 61, 286–304.

Perillo, J. T., & Kassin, S. M. (2011). Inside interrogation: The lie, the bluff, and false confessions. Law and Human Behavior, 35, 327–337. 

Ratcliff, J.J., Lassiter, G. D., Jager, V. M., Lindberg, M. J., Elek, J. K., & Hasinski, A. E. (2010). The hidden consequences of racial salience in videotaped interrogations and confessions. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 16, 200–218.

Redlich, A. D. (2004). Mental illness, police interrogations, and the potential for false confession. Psychiatric Services, 55, 19–21.

Redlich, A. D. (2010). False confessions and false guilty pleas. In G. D. Lassiter & C. A. Meissner (Eds.), Police interrogations and confessions: Current research, practice and policy recommendations (pp. 49–66). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Redlich, A. D., Bibas, S., Edkins, V., & Madon, S. (2017). The psychology of defendant plea decision-making. American Psychologist, 72, 339– 352.

Redlich, A. D., Ghetti, S., & Quas, J. A. (2008). Perceptions of children during a police interview: A comparison of suspects and alleged victims. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38, 705–735.

Redlich, A. D., & Goodman, G. S. (2003). Taking responsibility for an act not committed: Influence of age and suggestibility. Law and Human Behavior, 27, 141–156.

Redlich, A. D., & Kassin, S. M. (2009). Suggestibility and false confessions among juveniles. In B. L. Bottoms, C. J. Najdowski, & G. S. Goodman (Eds.), Children as victims, witnesses, and offenders: Psychological science and the law (pp. 275–294). Guilford Press.

Redlich, A. D., Shteynberg, R. V., & Nirider, L. H. (2020). Pragmatic implication in the interrogation room: A comparison of juveniles and adults. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 16, 555–564.

Redlich, A. D., Quas, J. A., & Ghetti, S. (2008). Perceptions of children during a police interview: Guilt, confessions, and interview fairness. Psychology, Crime, and Law, 14, 201–223.

Redlich, A. D., Silverman, M., & Steiner, H. (2003). Pre-adjudicative and adjudicative competence in juveniles and young adults. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 21, 393–410.

Redlich, A.D., Yan, S., Norris, R.J., & Bushway, S.D. (2018). The influence of confessions on guilty pleas and plea discounts. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 24, 147–157.

Rogers, R., Harrison, K., Hazelwood, L, & Sewell, K., (2007). Knowing and intelligent: A study of Miranda warnings in mentally disordered defendants. Law and Human Behavior, 31, 401–418.

Russano, M. B., Meissner, C. A., Narchet, F. M., & Kassin, S. M. (2005). Investigating true and false confessions within a novel experimental paradigm. Psychological Science, 16, 481–486.

Scheck, B., Neufeld, P., & Dwyer, J. (2000). Actual innocence. Doubleday.

Singh, K., & Gudjonsson, G. (1992). Interrogative suggestibility among adolescent boys and its relationship to intelligence, memory, and cognitive set. Journal of Adolescence, 15, 155–161.

Slobogin, C. (2003). Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 1, 309–322.

Sullivan, T. P. (2004). Police experiences with recording custodial interrogations. Chicago: Northwestern University Law School, Center on Wrongful Convictions.

Sullivan, T. P., Vail, A. W., & Anderson, H. W. (2008). The case for recording police interrogation. Litigation, 34, 1–8.

Swanner, J. K., Beike, D. R., & Cole, A. T. (2010). Snitching, lies and computer crashes: An experimental investigation of secondary confessions. Law and Human Behavior, 34, 53–65.

The Justice Project (2007). Electronic recording of custodial interrogations: A policy review. Washington, DC: The Justice Project.

Thompson, W. C. (2010). An American Psychology-Law Society scientific review paper on police interrogation and confession. Law and Human Behavior, 34, 1–2.

Viljoen, J., & Roesch, R. (2005). Competence to waive interrogation rights and adjudicative competence in adolescent defendants: Cognitive development, attorney contact, and psychological symptoms. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 723–742.

Viljoen, J., Klaver, J., & Roesch, R. (2005) Legal decisions of preadolescent and adolescent defendants: Predictors of confessions, pleas, communication with attorneys, and appeals. Law and Human Behavior, 29, 253–277.

Wall, S., & Furlong, J. (1985). Comprehension of Miranda rights by urban adolescents with law related education. Psychological Reports, 56, 359–372.

White, W. S. (2001). Miranda’s waning protections: Police interrogation practices after Dickerson. University of Michigan Press.

Copyright © 2022 by the American Psychological Association.
Approved by the APA Council of Representatives, February 2022.