AT THE DOCTORAL AND POSTDOCTORAL LEVEL IN
Prepared for the
Society of Consulting Psychology (SCP)
Division 13 of the American Psychological Association
By
Ann M. O’Roark, SCP Council Representative
Paul J. Lloyd, SCP Past Council Representative
Stewart E. Cooper, SCP Past Education &
Training Chair
December 4, 2004
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
A.1. Terminology
A.1.(a). Use of terms standards and guidelines
A.1.(b). Rationale for use of term(s)
A.2. Scope of Application and need for
proposed guidelines
A.2.(a). Scope of application
A.2.(b). Need for proposed guidelines
A.3. Process of developing proposed
guidelines
A.3.(a). Participants and processes
in developing guidelines
A.3.(b). Policy documents relevant to proposed guidelines
Section B: Implementation and Maintenance of Proposed Guidelines
B.1. Plan for promulgating proposed guidelines
B.2. Plan for maintaining currency of guidelines
Section C: Content of Proposed Guidelines
C.1. Clarity and internal consistency of text
C.2. Validity of guidelines
C.3. Individual and cultural diversity issues
C. 4. Guidelines For Education And Training at the
Doctoral and Postdoctoral Level
in Consulting Psychology (CP) / Organizational Consulting Psychology (OCP)
Section D:
References
Section E: Appendices
E.1. Brief Background Information: Writers/ Contributors to CP/OCP Guidelines
E.2. 1997/8
CP/OCP Guidelines Planning Grid
E.3. SCP CP/OCP Guidelines Development History
E.5. Overview of CP/OCP Guidelines: Principles, General Competencies,
Domain Specific Competencies
E. 6. Most
Influence on 20th Century Consulting Psychology, p.1. SCP 1999-2000
Survey
AT
THE DOCTORAL AND POSTDOCTORAL LEVEL
IN
CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGY (CP) /ORGANIZATIONAL CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGY (OCP)
Prepared for the
Society for Consulting Psychology (SCP)
Division 13 of the American Psychological Association (APA13)
2004 Version
Ann
M. O’Roark, SCP Council Representative
Paul
J. Lloyd, SCP Past Council Representative
Stewart
E. Cooper, SCP Past Education & Training Chair
Section A. Introduction
The purpose of these guidelines is to provide a common framework for
use in the development, evaluation, and review of education and training in
consulting psychology (CP) with particular focus on organizational consulting
psychology (OCP). The intent of doing
this is to improve the quality of teaching and learning in the emerging area of
practice in CP/OCP within the scientific discipline and profession of psychology. Towards these ends, this document is
intended as guidance for psychologists who teach or plan curricula for teaching
CP/OCP at doctoral or postdoctoral levels of professional education and
training in psychology.
These guidelines will be updated within ten years of the date initially approved by the American Psychological Association (APA) in accordance with provisions of Association Rule 30-8.3 and in alignment with the governance coordinating responsibilities and review managed by the Board of Educational Affairs (BEA) (2004, Developing and Evaluating Standards and Guidelines Related to Education and Training in Psychology: Context, Procedures, Criteria, and Format).
A.1.(a). Use of terms standards and guidelines
Guidelines are defined as pronouncements, statements, or declarations that suggest or recommend specific professional behavior, endeavors, or conduct for psychologists (American Psychological Association, 1992). The guidelines set forth in this document are consistent in intent and content with this definition, serving as a framework for guiding principles and suggested learning goals referred to as competencies. The guidelines set forth in this document are voluntary, not mandatory; they are aspirational teaching and learning objectives, not required standards. As such, they are intended to afford broad latitude for curriculum and continuing education program development in the emerging field of CP/OCP practice.
A.1.(b). Rationale for use of term(s)
Guidelines is the
appropriate term of choice for aspirational recommendations in regard to
curriculum development, learning objectives, and teaching strategies to those
responsible for graduate and postdoctoral education and training in psychology. Although ultimate responsibility for matters
of curriculum development and pedagogy is that of the faculty in higher
education institutions and programs, the involvement of national regulatory and
disciplinary associations in developing and promulgating guidelines related to
professional development is recognized, especially for new or changing areas of
practice. CP/OCP is such an area in the
practice of psychology.
A.2.(a). Scope of application
Although there are other applications of CP for which alternative or additional competencies may be relevant (e.g., health-related CP), the guidelines for education and training in this document relate to CP as it is applied to OCP. They are intended for use as suggestions or recommendations for psychology faculty responsible for teaching or planning curricula at doctoral or postdoctoral education and training levels in professional psychology. In that vein, however, they are not intended to take precedence over the judgment of faculty or others of academic authority responsible for specific education and training programs. Nor are these guidelines intended to replace, usurp, or conflict with training policies or guidelines that have been developed and approved for other areas of practice in psychology.
This initial mapping of CP/OCP is
intentionally a broad, general outline of three relevant areas of competency
for OCP practice, the Individual (I), Group (G), and Organizational (O). The
IGO competencies are placed within the framework of competency requirements
recognized as important for doctoral level education and training in
psychology. Following endorsement of this first articulation, the intention is
to extend the competency map to include suggestions for psychologists at the
several stages of their career in OCP: beginning, entry/transition, midlevel,
and senior. This OCP document serves as
the model for developing consulting guideline documents tailored for
psychologists whose consulting is based on expertise in particular specialties
and public interest fields, such as mental health, forensic, sports, aids,
diversity, environmental impact and life span.
A.2.(b). Need for proposed
guidelines
The premise on which the need for these guidelines is based is stated as follows: Being an effective psychologist is not enough to be an effective consultant. There is a body of knowledge and skills unique to this particular application of psychology, and just graduating from a doctoral program in psychology does not [necessarily] prepare one to provide consultees with the best possible consulting services (Robinson-Kurpius, Fuqua, Gibson, Kurpius, & Froehle, 1995, p.88).
This distinction and need was recognized in the earliest years of APA when the 1915 Whiple Resolution task group set up the Committee of Five to differentiate professionally qualified psychological experts from commercial consultants without scientific psychological knowledge or experience who were offering services and opinions for public consumption. SCP/APA Division 13 traces its roots to this Committee of Five and the work of that committee and its successors in defining consulting psychology (Rigby, 1996). Despite this long history, and a rapidly expanding body of CP knowledge and skill base literature (O’Roark, 1999), CP and OCP are underrepresented in doctoral and postdoctoral education and training programs (Hellkamp, Zins, Ferguson, & Hodge, 1998; Garman, Zlatoper, & Whiston, 1998). Moreover, consulting is important to the effectiveness of many if not all practicing psychologists to greater-or-lesser degrees, many of whom may not yet be aware that organizational consulting psychologists typically do more assessments for determining appropriate interventions (action research / calibration consultation to understand client culture and climate) than they do interventions. The burgeoning interest in CP, especially OCP, heightened the awareness within the division of a need to consolidate and disseminate education and training guidelines for CP useful for doctoral, postdoctoral, and continuing education (CE) programs in professional psychology (Hellkamp & Garmon, 1998; O’Roark, 1999).
While there are
doctoral and postdoctoral education and training courses on consultation in a
few universities (Hellkamp, Zins, Ferguson, & Hodge, 1998; Munz, 1977)),
there exist no other guidelines that address the three-domain competency model
considered central in CP/OCP guidelines. The domain infrastructure for OCP
addresses competencies focused on individual, group, and
organizational/systems (I-G-O)
levels. The uniqueness of this feature of the OCP guidelines was
validated when SCP invited four closely aligned divisions to write articles
providing comparative analysis, critiques, and feedback on the OCP guidelines
for publication in a special issue of the Consulting Psychology Journal:
Practice and Research (Cooper, 2002).
These articles, summarized in Appendix E.4, were invited by the
journal’s guest editor following completion of the formal call for comment on
an earlier draft of the guidelines, issued by BEA to APA governance groups,
divisions, legal counsel, and other interested/affected parties.
In summary, OCP
guidelines were developed in response to perceived need based on three types of
evidence: an increase of interest among psychologists in CP/OCP without a
corresponding growth in education and training programs focused on that area of
practice (Hellkamp, Zins, Ferguson, & Hodge, 1998; Munz, 1977); an increase
of literature in recent years distinctive to the practice of CP and,
especially, OCP that needed to be synthesized (O’Roark, 2000); and, a growing
consensus of professional support for the three-domain competency model for
preparation to practice CP/OCP (E.4). It is anticipated that consulting competencies
relevant, for example, for a mental health or school psychologist will include
knowledge and skills pertinent to each I-G-O domain, but will not include all
competencies named for OCP practitioners.
A.3. Process of developing
proposed guidelines
The Society of Consulting Psychology (SCP) is responsible for developing these guidelines. Prompted by the increased interest in CP/OCP practice, SCP in 1997 called together an Education and Training (E&T) ad hoc work group of selected division members with recognized experience and expertise backgrounds to undertake the task of developing and writing guidelines for education and training at the doctoral and postdoctoral level in consulting psychology/ organizational consulting psychology (CP/OCP). Towards that end, this document is the result of iterative drafts [1999 – 2004] that have been periodically distributed for comment and feedback from SCP members, APA divisions and governance groups, and non-APA colleagues.
A.3.(a). Participants and
processes in developing guidelines
Participants.
The eight E & T Committee members who contributed
substantively to the development of the CP/OCP guidelines are: Rodney L. Lowman (E&T Chair, 1998-2000),
Clayton Alderfer, Michael Atella, Andrew Garman, David Hellkamp, Richard
Kilburg, Paul Lloyd, Ann O'Roark, and Stewart Cooper (E&T Chair,
2000-2004). They represent different
aspects of CP/OCP practice, a nation-wide distribution, and individuals
recognized as having expertise and experience in substantive content components. Brief reviews of their professional
backgrounds are provided in Appendix E.1. and their substantive assignments are
shown in Appendix E.2.
During the 1998 Midwinter Conference and Board Meeting,
division leaders identified members with publication and experience background
in the several guidelines domains.
These individuals were invited to become part of the special E&T
task group to draft guidelines. A pool of individuals interested in the E&T
exploration of consulting proficiencies had initially been developed by inviting conference attendees
with background and time to devote to the E&T work to put their names on
chart paper sheets [with topical labels] that were placed on meeting room walls
during the 1996 and 1997 Midwinter Conferences (DeWayne Kurpius, E&T Chair,
1995-98, Appendix E.3).
The geographic
regions represent programmatically diverse academic approaches to
organizational consulting: East-Rutgers; Central–Xavier and Southeast Missouri
State University; South-Eckerd College/Leadership Development Institute [Center
for Creative Leadership] programs; West-Alliant International University. External and Internal Consulting was
represented: (a) a full time independent practitioner, two part-time private
practitioners, and (b) two full time employees -- a government agency, and a
hospital system. An award winning
postdoctoral intern represented early career psychologists in consulting
psychology.
The work of this E&T work group was informed by surveys
of CP/OCP practice conducted by SCP leaders during the previous decade (Hellkamp,
D. T. & Morgan, L., 1990; Hellkamp, D.T., 1993; Robinson-Kurpius, Fuqua,
Gibson, Kurpius, & Froehle, 1995).
After analyzing survey results and reviewing recent literature, academic
programs, and other division policies, the writers adopted the framework for
the present guidelines for CP/OCP, consisting of: (a) overarching
principles; (b) general competency
domains; and (c) domain-specific competencies for the three-domain model for
CP/OCP that focuses on individuals, groups, and organizations/systems. Appendix E.2
shows the plan for guidelines development with committee member assignments to
different aspects of the guidelines with initial time-line projections and
objectives.
Process.
Appendix E.3 presents a long view of division activities
that were preliminaries to the current guidelines development process. During the division’s 1998 Midwinter
Conference the E&T writing group drafted objectives and steps for
development of CP/OCP education and training guidelines. The ad hoc writing group established
the final planning model and organizing framework during a conference call the
following month. Subsequently, authors
sent materials to the E&T chair for editorial suggestions and for integration
of the several sections. Based on
editorial comments received, a revised preliminary draft of the guidelines was
disseminated to the midwinter SCP Board.
Subsequent to that, two SCP symposia were conducted during the 1999 APA
summer convention, offering forums for considering the need for OCP
guidelines. They were framed around the
following two themes: (1) Do We Need Doctoral Level Programs In CP/OCP,
and (2) Similarities And Differences Among Four Doctoral Level Psychology
Programs Offering Concentration In Organizational Consulting.
In the fall of 1999, the first draft was submitted to the
APA Board of Educational Affairs (BEA).
In January of 2000 during its midwinter meeting, the SCP Board conducted
a two-hour review of the fall 1999 guidelines draft submitted to BEA. Following those early efforts, several
iterations of the guidelines were drafted in response to feedback and
suggestions.
Substantive feedback received from outside SCP at that time
came from APA divisions, notably Divisions 14 and 52. In order to supplement and extend the feedback data base, SCP
published a special issue of its division journal, Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice & Research (CPJ:P&R)(2000). Invited formal
reviews of the guidelines came from four APA divisions with larger overlap
memberships (Divisions 14, 16, 17, and 19), abstracts of which appear in
Appendix E.4. Although each of the articles offers a different perspective and emphasis
related to particular competencies in organizational consulting, all included
strong commendations for the SCP guidelines effort, expressing support for
articulating and promulgating the guidelines.
A few of the more complex recommendations made in the articles are under
consideration by SCP for inclusion in its next articulation of these
guidelines.
Other opportunities
for review-and-feedback on the draft guidelines include: the SCP website and
the division initiated Handbook of organizational consulting psychology: A
comprehensive guide to theory, skills, and techniques (Lowman, 2002). Since 1997, the CPJ: P&R devoted
two full issues to training and education in OCP by Guest Eds. Hellkamp &
Garman, 1998:50,4; and by Guest Ed. S. Cooper, 2002:54,4. In CPJ: P&R, 55,2, 2003,
Lowman included the SCP experience with the OCP guidelines, up to that time, as
a case example in his article, “History and political process of professional
training and practice guideline promulgation and approval.”
In their review, the BEA had deferred action on CP/OCP
guidelines, pending completion of its development of formal procedures and
criteria by which to evaluate guidelines for education and training in
psychology, undergoing a process similar to one just completed by BPA for
practice guidelines. In the same time period, BPA cleared their expressed
concerns regarding SCP guidelines as submitted in 1999/2000 and referred them
to BEA for primary processing. Since
the guidelines met extant criteria and were cleared to proceed, SCP submitted a
new business item to the APA Council of Representatives in February 2001,
seeking Council endorsement of the CP/OCP guidelines. SCP’s January 4, 2001 main motion reads:
“That the Council of Representatives approves Division 13
[SCP] promulgating the “Guidelines for Education and Training at the Doctoral
and Postdoctoral Level in Consulting Psychology-Organizational Consulting
Psychology as division policy, making it clear that the division is not
speaking for the APA or for any other division or unit of APA”. (P. J.
Lloyd, APA13 Council Representative, 1997-2003, received 48 endorsements from
fellow Council Representatives).
Council was unable to take action pending development of
BEA procedures and criteria for the review of such documents. The item remains as new business “pending”
before the Council. With the Council’s approval in February 2004 of the
procedures and criteria for evaluating education and training guidelines
developed by BEA, SCP revised and aligned the 2001 document which has been
reviewed by BEA and is being forwarded with their endorsement and
recommendation to the Board of Directors and for approval by the Council of
Representatives at the February 2005 Meeting. Final editing language was
inserted (pp.31, 33,
34) during the February 2005 Council meeting in response to requests from the Women’s
Caucus Group.
A.3.(b). Policy documents relevant to proposed guidelines
The following documents provided foundations, baseline, and substantive
information for preparing the SCP/OCP guidelines.
Policy Documents Relevant for Guideline Development
Association Rules of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2004b). This document has been revised since
the initial drafting of the CP/OCP guidelines. Rule 80.3 provided parameters
and expectations followed in development of the CP/OCP guidelines, i.e. the
stipulated ten year time frame for updating and renewal of guidelines.
Developing and Evaluating Standards and Guidelines Related to Education
and Training in Psychology: Context, Procedures, Criteria, and Format (APA/BEA, 2004a).
This policy served as the formatting guideline for this 2004
re-alignment of the 2001 OCP guidelines that had been developed over across
three years, 1997-2000. BEA staff
advisors recommended revamping materials prepared by several separate writing
groups to assure: Consistency in language, such as elimination of all “should”
words, and inclusion of statements in each domain [individual, group,
organizational/system] that addressed ethical, diversity, multicultural, life
span, social-cultural issues, and legal considerations.
American
Psychological Association ASME Guidelines, (APA, 1992). This APA policy,
incorporating the guidelines statements from the professional Mechanical
Engineering association, gave pertinent, constraining details relevant for
articulating guidelines that might affect economic interests or competition in
the general public arena.
Distinguishing between OCP and management consultants without
credentials in psychology becomes increasingly important for those practicing
OCP and required specific attention to these legal risks. This policy emphasizes the need to obtain
and consider views of all who will be affected by the guidelines, gathering
consensus opinions, and maintaining documentation of circulation of guidelines
(See general competencies, section 10).
Policy Documents Relevant For
Substantive Components
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (APA, 2002a).
This policy was revised since the initial drafting of OCP
guidelines. Preparing CP/OCP guidelines
brought to attention of the SCP leadership group an absence of APA ethics
statements relevant to the unique aspects of consulting psychology. As a result the SCP board set up an ad hoc
work group to collaborate with the APA committee updating the APA ethics
code. Professional Ethics are included
in the OCP guidelines model as a separate and specific general competency, are
relevant and permeate each of the three domains of interventions, and are
re-addressed as the concluding section of the OCP guidelines. Particular references
are made in several sections, for example: Standard 2: Competence (General
Principles, Assessment, paragraph 2); Standard 4: Privacy and Confidentiality
(Individual Domain, paragraph 7); and, Standard 9: Assessment (Individual
Domain, paragraph 2,4,5).
Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice,
and Organizational Change For Psychologists (APA, 2003). This document
[hereafter referred to as APA Multicultural Guidelines] was published after the
OCP guidelines were initially prepared and presented to APA Council and will
serve as a major resource for future updating work on these guidelines.
Guideline #5: “Psychologists strive to apply culturally-appropriate skills in
clinical and other applied psychological practices” (p.309-392) and Guideline #
6 “Psychologists are encouraged to use organizational change processes to
support culturally informed organizational (policy) development and practices”
are of particular importance, especially the education and training aspects.
Several SCP/Division 13 activities and key interests of members afford
evidence that diversity [multicultural, international] issues have received
prominent attention in division efforts to consolidate knowledge and literature
relevant to consulting practice. SCP has
maintained an ongoing interest in international considerations since the 1950s,
offers international symposia as part of their APA convention program on a
regular basis, publishes multicultural articles in it’s journal, the board has
stated a diversity goal since 1990, and included several chapters in the
recently published handbook on organizational consulting psychology. One
chapter includes a consulting model designed for proactive attention to
cultural differences before attempting any organizational intervention
(O’Roark, 2002).
The APA Multicultural
Guidelines document includes an extensive reference list that extends and
supplement references recorded in these OCP guidelines and those in the
international and cross cultural chapters of the SCP 2002 Handbook on
Organizational Consulting Psychology: Theory, Skills, and Techniques (2002.
esp. Cooper & Mullin; Nurcan; & O’Roark).
Guidelines for Psychotherapy with Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Clients (2000) is an APA approved set of practice
guidelines that incorporate an educational component. This document and the APA
Multicultural Guidelines (2003) provide examples of educational components that
will inform the updating OCP guidelines, developed prior to publication of
either APA policy document.
Guidelines for Education and Training at the Doctoral Level in
Industrial/Organizational Psychology (SIOP,
1998); and, Principles for the Validation and Use
of Personnel Selection Procedures, 4th Edition (SIOP, 2003).
The I/O guidelines were reviewed and
discussed by the SCP guidelines writers prior to initial draft
preparations. The principles will be
useful for updating OCP guidelines. Similarities and differences between CP/OCP
and the SIOP guidelines are noted by the SIOP reviewer of the guidelines for the
Consulting Psychology Journal, see Appendix E.4. The envisioned expansion of CP guidelines to
address consultation education and training in clinical, counseling, and school
psychology will reflect similar overlaps with guidelines developed for those fields
and are noted by other division’s reviewers summarized in E.4.
Section B: Implementation and Maintenance of Proposed Guidelines
Implementation and maintenance of the proposed guidelines is assigned
to the Education and Training (E&T) Committee of the Society of Consulting
Psychology (SCP)/APA Division 13.
B.1. Plan for promulgating proposed guidelines
Once approved, the SCP E&T Committee will post an updated
announcement about the guidelines on the Division 13 website, and will publish
an announcement in the Division 13 newsletter and journal. In addition, it will provide electronic
dissemination of the guidelines to graduate departments and professional
schools of psychology, the Council of Chairs of Training Councils, state
psychological associations, and APA divisions for possible use in graduate or
postdoctoral programs, conferences and workshops, distance learning CE events,
and other appropriate education and training events.
B.2. Plan for maintaining currency of guidelines
The SCP E&T Committee will plan for the review
and update the proposed guidelines on a regular basis. No later than five years after APA approval
of the proposed guidelines, the SCP E&T chair will present a schedule for
updating, including recommendations for an ad
hoc review committee, a time-table for presenting an updated draft to the
SCP Board for review, to the division APA Council Representative, and to the
APA Board of Educational Affairs for APA governance reviews prior to APA
Council re-endorsement in time for the
update required by Association Rule 80.3.
A new E&T ad hoc workgroup, appointed in 2001, articulated OCP
guidelines as a division white paper
document that elaborates skills associated with consulting career phases:
Beginning Level (0-3 experience, first career choice); Entry Level (0-3 years
experience in some field not considered organizational psychology); Mid-Level
(4-7 years experience); and Senior Level (8+ years experience in OCP). SCP/APA Division 13’s Professional Affairs
Committee articulated a division issues paper/policy regarding licensure issues
that has been edited by and approved by the SCP Board. An expansion of consulting guidelines for
psychologists specialized in mental health, forensic, school, sports,
multicultural,
and
international issues is awaiting completion of the OCP prototype.
Section C: Content of Proposed Guidelines
In preparing the current guidelines, the SCP E&T Committee has been
sensitive to the evaluation criteria established by the BEA for review of
standards and guidelines for education and training in psychology, namely:
clarity and internal consistency of text; validity of guidelines; and issues of
individual and cultural diversity.
C.1 Clarity and internal consistency of text
The review process has improved clarity and internal consistency the SCP Guidelines. Careful attention to terminology has been given in reviews so as to be consistent with APA policy guidance on such matters. Eight iterations of the initial draft guidelines have been completed. A chart of the guidelines model was introduced. All key terms were defined and any language implying “should” or “must” was replaced.
Validity for the proposed guidelines is documented through references listed in this document and, more extensively, in literature cited in the 32 chapters of the Handbook of Organizational Consulting Psychology: A Comprehensive Guide to Theory, Skills, and Techniques, conceptualized by the SCP Board and the E&T Committee, edited by Rodney Lowman, and published by Jossey-Bass (2002).
Identity-group
research and interventions are prominent in all I –G – O domains and are
explicated in greatest detail, to avoid redundancy, under group domain
competencies. Diversity and international issues are included in the OCP model
as a General Competency. A proactive
model, calibration consultation, for international organizational
consulting is provided in Chapter 21 of the Handbook of Organizational
Consulting Psychology (O’Roark, 2002), and incorporates most of the
competencies described in this document.
C.4 Guidelines for Education and Training at the Doctoral and Postdoctoral Level in Consulting Psychology (CP) /Organizational Consulting Psychology (OCP).
The substance of the guidelines follows.
Guidelines for Education and Training at the Doctoral and Postdoctoral Level
in Consulting Psychology (CP)/Organizational Consulting Psychology (OCP) (2004).
Society for Consulting Psychology (SCP) / Division 13
American Psychological Association (APA).
The
purpose of these guidelines is to provide a common framework for use in the
development, evaluation, and review of education and training in consulting
psychology / organizational consulting psychology (CP/OCP). The intent of these guidelines is to improve
the quality of teaching and learning in the area of the practice of CP,
especially OCP within the scientific discipline and profession of psychology.
Towards these ends, this document is intended as guidance for psychologists who teach or plan curricula for teaching CP/OCP at doctoral or postdoctoral levels of professional education and training in psychology. The guidelines are structured in the form of overarching principles, general competencies, and domain specific competencies that are ideally obtained by persons receiving training at the doctoral or postdoctoral level in CP/OCP. (Appendix E.5.)
Consulting Psychology, a practice that focuses on consultation to, with, for individuals and organizations at individual, group, and organizational/systemwide levels rooted in multiple areas of substantive expertise, is used here as defined in the 1999 SCP Bylaws:
Consulting psychology, for
the purposes of these By-Laws, shall be defined as the function of applying and
extending the special knowledge of a psychologist, through the process of
consultation, to problems involving human behavior in various areas. A consulting psychologist shall be defined
as a psychologist who provides specialized technical assistance to individuals
or organizations in regard to the psychological aspects of their work. Such
assistance is advisory in nature and the consultant has no direct
responsibility for its acceptance. Consulting
psychologists may have as clients individuals,
institutions, agencies, corporations or other kinds of organizations. (www.apa.org/divisions/div13/)
Also
relevant to these guidelines is the general definition of psychological
practice noted in Model Acts of the American Psychological Association
(1987) and the Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards
(1992). Practice of Psychology is
defined (ASPPB, 1992, pp. 4-5) as:
the observation, description, evaluation, interpretation, and/or
modification of human behavior by the application of psychological principles,
methods, or procedures, for the purpose of preventing or eliminating
symptomatic, maladaptive, or undesired behavior and or enhancing interpersonal
relationships, work and life adjustment, personal effectiveness, behavioral
health and mental health. The practice
of psychology includes, but is not limited to, psychological testing and the
evaluation or assessment of personal characteristics, such as intelligence,
personality, abilities, interests, aptitudes, and neuropsychological
functioning; counseling, psychoanalysis, psychotherapy, hypnosis, biofeedback,
and behavior analysis and therapy; diagnosis and treatment of mental and
emotional disorder or disability, alcoholism and substance abuse, disorders of
habit or conduct, as well as psycho educational evaluation, therapy,
remediation, and consultation.
Psychological services may be rendered to individuals, families, groups,
organizations, institutions and the public.
The practice of psychology shall be construed within the meaning of this
definition without regard to whether payment is received for services rendered
[certain exemptions are noted, e.g., for teaching and research].
Areas of Training Addressed. This document proceeds from three overarching principles and ten general areas of learning competencies, culminating in competencies specific to three domains or levels of organizational consulting psychology: individual, group, and organization / systemwide /intersystem (I-G-O)(E.5). Although there are other applications of CP for which alternative or additional competencies may be relevant (e.g., health-related CP), the specific areas of expertise addressed in this document relate to CP as it is applied to organizational consulting psychology (OCP). These guidelines are not intended to replace, usurp, or conflict with training policies or principles that have been developed and approved for other areas of practice such as those in I/O, clinical, counseling, or school psychology.
CP/OCP guidelines note that the effective practice of CP/OCP, ideally, draws simultaneously on general competencies applicable in every domain, for example: recommended adherence to the scientist-practitioner model; recognition of the evolving nature of the field; acknowledging the multiple avenues for preparation for various roles as a CP; encouraging self awareness and self-management; relationship development; assessment competency; process consultation; interventions and methodological diversities required to meet contextual uniqueness; knowledge of theory, case studies, empirical research; application of multicultural/international competencies; research methods and statistics; technological advances, business operations, industry regulations, legal considerations; and advocating knowledge of and adherence to ethical and legal parameters;
Appendix E.5. provides an overview map of the CP/OCP Guidelines. OCP guidelines include three overarching principles, the assumptions and premises of the guidelines; ten general competency areas, the foundations common to applied psychology and included here to show the context of the OCP competencies; and, three domains of specific competencies – Individual, Group, and Organizational & Systems (I-G-O), consolidated here to explicate competencies unique to OCP. The focus and task of this document is to address the Domain Specific Competencies, I-G-O competencies uniquely relevant to organizational consulting psychology. .
Overarching Principles. The overarching principles are the acknowledged assumptions and psychological context within which the OCP competencies are framed. 1) Scientist-practitioner; 2) Evolving field; and 3) Non-exclusivity.
General Competencies. The ten general competencies as detailed and promulgated by APA specialists in those topics show the psychological context within which the OCP competencies function. 1) Self-awareness & Self-management; 2) Relationship Development; 3) Assessment; 4) Process Consultation/Action Research; 5) Interventions; 6) Knowledge Of Theory, Case Studies, Empirical Research, Applications, Evaluation Methods, 7) Multicultural and International Awareness, Knowledge of Socio-Political Background and Cultural Values and Patterns; 8) Research Methods and Statistics; 9) Business Operations, Legal, Industry Regulations, Technological Advances; and, 10) Professional Ethics And Standards.
Domain Specific Competencies. The OCP guidelines address attention to I-G-O competencies pertinent to the work of consulting: 1) Individual Level/Domain Interventions; 2) Group Level/Domain Interventions; and, 3) Organization/Systems Level/domain Interventions
Overarching
Principles
Scientist-Practitioner
Assumptions. Consistent with the
orientation of SCP/ Division 13 of APA, these guidelines assume that CP/OCP is
guided by the science of psychology in evaluating and assessing the
effectiveness of interventions and assessment methodologies used in the practice
of OCP. The use of the term interventions
here is consistent with Daugherty, 2000, who defines interventions as:
“.
. .activities the consultant and consultee think have the best chance of
effectively solving the problem.”
It is recommended
that the consulting psychologist be competent to conduct and/or to evaluate and
to utilize scientific-based research in the practice of CP/OCP. The
effective consulting psychologist, ideally, has in-depth knowledge of the major
theoretical models in psychology and of their particular methodologies and
intervention strategies as they apply to individual, group, and organizational
consulting domains. CP/OCP embraces a
scientist-practitioner model (Baker, & Benjamin, 2000; Stricker, 2000) of
training, including training in traditional research skills (e.g., statistics,
research design, test construction).
No single model of
empirical research, however, is assumed to have a monopoly on truth by the
endorsement of the "scientist-practitioner" model of consultation.
CP/OCP trainees learn, e.g., not just about research methodologies but also
about the role of the consultant as an active participant in the consulting
process at hand (Lippitt & Lippitt, 1978).
Action research, an assessment or study of the situation and problem
undertaken by the consultant prior to the implementation of particular
consultation services or interventions, is traced to Kurt Lewin (1951). An example of such practice in OCP is the
joint consultant-client determination of an organizations’ needs or critical
problems and ideal outcomes, sometimes called calibration consultation,
a process that is important when applying complex constructs to practical
problems (Schein, 1985), especially in international or multicultural
organizations (O’Roark, 2002).
Evolving Field. CP and OCP have evolved over time. The body of knowledge and methods of service delivery escalated in the past two decades, stimulated by the writings and publications of former SCP President, Thomas Backer (1982a, b). DeWayne Kurpius, 1991 winner of SCP/APA13’s award for lifetime achievement in consulting to organizations, prepared a consulting psychology reading-list for a survey conducted while he was E & T chair for SCP. Results of a 1999 SCP survey (E.6) of “the best of the century” in consulting psychology reports names of psychologists with greatest influence on contemporary consulting psychologists, as well as listing 68 authors and 93 titles (O’Roark, 2000). Top rated writings in APA Division 13’s millennium survey were similar to the earlier Kurpius survey: Organizational Diagnosis (Levinson, 1972); Process Consultation (Schein, 1969); Intervention Theory and Methods (Argyris, 1970); and, The Theory and Practice of Mental Health Consultation (Caplan, 1970). Carl Rogers is cited six times. Three of these nominations are for his book, Freedom to Learn (1969). Edgar Schein received four citations, two for his book, Organization Culture and Leadership (1985 & 1992) and two for Process Consultation (1969). Other top rated writings are: Block (1981); Caplan and Caplan (1993); Lippitt and Lippitt (1978); Senge (1990); and Tobias (1990).
OCP will continue
to evolve, and sometimes to use techniques that have received limited research
investigation. The concern is to do so
in an ethical manner. Standard 2.e of
the 2002 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and code of Conduct (2002) was specifically written to provide
guidance. It states “(e) In those
emerging areas in which generally recognized standards for preparatory training
do not yet exist, psychologists nevertheless take reasonable steps to ensure
the competence of their work and to protect clients/patients, students,
supervisees, research participants, organizational clients, and others from
harm.” This standard is highlighted
in regularly offered Ethics Workshops sponsored by SCP and is also attended to
in articles published in the Division’s two official publications, Consulting
Psychology: Practice and Research, a journal, and the Consulting
Psychologist, the division newsletter.
Non-Exclusivity. OCP guidelines recognize that there are appropriate ways other than doctoral training in CP/OCP to become proficient in the competencies here described (for example, applied research and practice in sports psychology, a field historically prominent in European psychology: Foster, 2002. Enhancing Peak Potential in Managers and Leaders: Integrating Knowledge and Findings from Sport Psychology). Academic training in areas such as Industrial/Organizational Psychology (e.g., Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1998) and Clinical or Counseling Psychology provide considerable training that is relevant for the practice of CP. These guidelines are intended to assist in the specific development of doctoral programs, postdoctoral training, and continuing education institutes/workshops in CP/OCP.
OCP guidelines and
references have been prepared to reflect the current state and historical
development of the OCP field, highlighting contributions of SCP/APA13 leaders,
and to provide a conceptual framework for the development of training programs.
It is expected that these OCP guidelines will continue to change over time to
keep pace with advances in research and practice.
OCP guidelines comprise sets of competencies needed for CP
practice in work and organizational contexts. The document intentionally
identifies recommended competencies (or "end states") rather
than presenting "model curricula" or specific course work since there
are multiple ways to obtain the desired competencies. Indeed, innovation in
doctoral and postdoctoral training methodologies for helping students achieve
these competencies is encouraged.
General
Competencies are included here to place in context the targeted CP/OCP
competencies emphasized in this document for the doctoral-level consulting
psychologist.
General Competency areas are briefly touched upon here,
some more fully than others due to suggestions provided during review of the
document by APA divisions, state/province/territorial groups, APA boards and
committees, and others invited to provide feedback. In addition to feedback
provided in 1999/2000, noted elsewhere (Divisions 14, 16, 17, 19, and 52), the
guidelines writers of the 2004 version express appreciation to those providing
suggestions and comments during 2004 to earlier iterations promulgated:
Division 38, Health Psychology; Division 44, Study of Gay, Lesbian, and
Bisexual Issues; Division 14, Industrial/Organizational; Division 17,
Counseling; Division 42, Independent Practice; APA Committee on Women in
Psychology; APA Committee on Aging; APA Policy and Planning Board; APA
Committee on the Advancement of Professional Practice; APA Board of
Professional Affairs; APA Board for the Advancement of Psychology in the Public
Interest; APA Board of Scientific Affairs; APA Committee on Legal Issues; and,
the Board of Educational Affairs. Of 48
specific suggestions, 33 were directly addressed in the December 2004 draft;
and, 5 matters requiring more research are being referred to the division Education
and Training Committee for consideration for the next update. The writers
acknowledge the BEA subcommittee for their extensive and helpful critique of
earlier drafts and their supportive recommendation to the APA Council.
Two general
competency areas, Self Awareness / Self Management and Relationship
Development are prerequisites for all areas of psychological practice. Graduate level education, practicum, or
internship work pertinent to these competencies ideally include close
critiquing of personal value and belief systems as well as analysis of
interpersonal exchanges with colleagues and clients. Self-Awareness and Relationships Development competencies
apply in each of the I-G-O domains of consulting services. Psychologists learn
how to build constructive, collaborative relationships with a variety of
types of people and organizational representatives. They learn how to maintain
both objectivity and personal engagement as they work with clients to further
specific consultative goals.
Assessment. Assessment is considered to be not only a General Competency, but also a pivotal CP/OCP competency in all three I-G-O consulting levels. It is given special attention here as a general competency to begin to highlight the aspects distinctive to OCP. Ryan and Zeran (1972) usefully defined assessment as:
“. . .a disciplined way of analyzing as precisely as possible an
existing situation by determining the nature of the elements which combine and
relate to make the situation what it is, establishing interrelationships among
the elements, and synthesizing a new whole to provide means of optimizing
system outcomes.”
Assessment competencies for organizational consulting can
be depicted on dual continua: scientist- practitioner and theory to
practice. While assessment approaches,
methods, and instruments vary dramatically according to the I-G-O domain of
focus and cultural context, skills to be developed in assessment, regardless of
I-G-O focus, include identifying (observing, using logical deduction), integrating
(classifying), and inferring (matching evidence to goals and assessment
schema), in order to assist in decision making, in implementing change, or in
improving understanding (Barclay, 1991).
Assessment, generically, is the systematic process of making inferences
in order to arrive at a diagnosis for use in informed decision-making regarding
interventions. Special attention to and need for assessment in preparation to
work with multicultural groups and international organizations is highlighted and
defined in the “calibration consultation” model (O’Roark, 1995; 2005).
The pervasive aspect of competence (Ethical Principles of
Psychologists and Code of Conduct 2002; Standard 2) in systematic, formal
assessment, across the three interactive domains – I-G-O -- is recognized by
representing psychological assessment as a “general competency” in SCP
CP/OCP guidelines (Appendix E.5).
Process Consultation/Action Research. Similarly, process consultation ( Schein, 1965; 1969; 1985; 1987; 1999) is an important General Competency and OCP competency in each I-G-O domain. Schein considers process consultation to be integral in a philosophy of helping that stands in contrast to medical [doctor/expert] consulting approaches. While never depriving a client (individual, group, or system) of one’s expertise, Schein (1989) details the value of starting in a process consultation mode, which means working from several basic assumptions:
“. . . [clients]
seek help when they do not know exactly what their problems are…the help they
really need is in figuring out exactly what is wrong…most clients do not know
what kinds of help are available and what kinds of help are relevant to their
problems…many of the problems in human systems are such that clients...would
benefit from participation in the process of making the diagnosis…only clients
know what form of remedial intervention will really work because only they know
what will fit their personalities and or group or organizational cultures
(p.5).”
Process consultation/action research is included in the SCP OCP guidelines as a general competency goal. Process skills contribute to a number of other competency areas and illustrate a hallmark expertise in OCP. Process skills are integral to organizational assessment and in most forms of intervention.
Other general competency areas are: intervention; knowledge of theory and case studies; research methods and statistics; business operations [financial, legal, industry standards, technological advances]; and professional ethics and standards;.
Intervention, defined earlier as “activities the consultant and consultee think have the best chance of effectively solving the problem” (Dougherty, 2000), refers to the psychological procedures and processes introduced into the organization. Standard, classical activities and innovations or variations fill volumes of “how to” books, such as the early University Associates publication of Pfeiffer & Jones series called “Structured Experiences,” now published as handbooks by Jossey-Bass.
Knowledge of theory and case studies serves as the substantive and applied scholarly foundation for engaging in OCP. Knowing the history and scope and watershed applications of consulting psychology proves practically useful in preparing the consultant for designing interventions and to establish credibility with organizational clients, who often read the management books that fill the airport shelves and enjoy telling their own versions of the good and the bad experiences with consultants.
Multi-cultural,
international, gender, and life span
competencies represent a learning area that cuts across the domain levels. Consulting psychologists acquire appropriate
understanding of and sensitivity to multi-cultural / international issues as
well as learning “identity group” (which is defined to include but not be
limited to national heritage, age, occupational field, educational
experience, race, ethnicity, culture,
gender, sexual orientation, and disability status) consulting skills (Sue,
Arredondo, McDavis, 1992; Triandis, 1987; House, Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla,
Dorfman, Javidan, Dickson, et.al, 1999; Dana, 2001; O’Roark, 2002).
While genuine,
appropriate behavior is considered germane to effectiveness in every consulting
venture, working with international clients and multicultural workgroups brings
the U.S. consultant’s credibility and relevance under intensified
scrutiny. The challenge for the
organizational consultant is to temper interventions with consideration of the
client’s zeitgeist, ortgeist, weltanschauung, and erliebnistypus
[the ‘spirit’ of the time and the place/situation, outlook on the world, and
client’s experience balance]. The total of such dynamics is referred to as
becoming “culture-centered” in the
Multicultural Guidelines.
In the interest of
articulating a way of proactively addressing “anticipated impact of the
proposed guidelines [applying skills, techniques, and models included in these
guidelines] on diverse individuals and groups” (APA 2004) with respect to
corporate culturel, gender, individual, and role differences , the published
model for an International Organizational Consulting Process is a variation on
the calibration consultation model used for working in the USA with
multicultural work groups, unique structural configurations, and employee
subgroupings such as gender, first language groups, payroll groups,
union-nonunion employees. The process
is adapted from the full-cycle “action research” process which calls for the
consultant to learn the organization’s culture before imposing an
intervention. Calibration and guanxi
[Chinese: instrumental relationship development] are terms that call attention
to the need for the consultant to calibrate cultural dimensions and build
relationships in the client organization before recommending any type of
psychological intervention or organizational improvement activity (see E. 7 and
Section III on Organizational/Systemic Consulting Psychology Competencies).
Research methods and statistics competencies will not only enable the consultant to conduct surveys, interpret formal assessment data, and build empirical evidence of effectiveness of interventions, this will provide a good beginning base for understanding business operating finances. OCP consultants who do not develop comfort and competence in reading organizational financial reports and budgets will be at a distinct disadvantage when competing with business administration management consultants or when coaching high level executives.
Understanding business operations also means knowing legal constraints on competing for contracts, becoming familiar with industry-wide regulations such as the international standards established in IPSO, and technological advances that have impacted the way businesses do business. Technology and the virtual workgroup will comprise a whole new chapter in the upcoming edition of the basic handbook / reference book on leadership (Bass, in-process, expected publication 2005).
Professional ethics and standards compliance is considered as a pervasive, general competency in the OCP
guidelines model. Knowledge of the psychologists’ code of ethics will permeate
each of the three domains of interventions, and are re-addressed as the
concluding section of the OCP guidelines, using a portion of a paper presented
in one of the frequent SCP convention symposia dedicated to ethical issues.
Particular ethics references are included in several of the following sections,
for example: Standard 2: Competence (General Principles, Assessment, paragraph
2); Standard 4: Privacy and Confidentiality (Individual Domain, paragraph 7)
and, Standard 9: Assessment (Individual Domain, paragraph 2,4,5).
Domain-Specific Competencies
Domain-Specific
competencies are organized into three broad domains of psychological expertise
that are considered important in becoming competent as an organizational
consulting psychologist: individual, group, and organizational/systems [I-G-O]. This I-G-O model is
primarily intended for organizing and conceptualizing purposes when thinking
about curriculum design issues and continuing education programs; we assume
that to some degree competencies in each domain will interact with one another
and that the effective practice of CP/OCP draws simultaneously on competencies
relevant at each of the levels.
Although specific competencies do not always neatly fit within a single domain, grouping by focal categories of the organization levels serves as a useful organizing metric in thinking through the issues of how best to train people to become consulting psychologists. Within each of the three domains a series of specific competencies is identified as having primary, but not exclusive, relevance to that intervention domain. Illustrative competencies, elaborated in subsequent sections, are listed here and include:
Primarily Individual-level Core Competencies:
· Individual assessment for purposes of career and vocational assessment
· Individual assessment for purposes of employee selection or development
· Job analysis and culture/diversity as found in race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability status, socioeconomic status, national heritage, industry, education, job/role calibrations for purposes of individual assessment
· Executive and individual coaching
· Individual-level intervention for job and career-related problems
· Awareness of relevant ethical principles: i.e., confidentiality, culture-centered awareness/understanding/guanxi as they apply in the OCP context
Primarily Group-level Core Competencies –
· Assessment of functional and dysfunctional group behavior
· Assessment and development of teams with attention to diversity (here and after used to refer to the full range of diversity variables )considerations
· Creating group level teams in organizations (e.g., self-directed work groups)
· Inter-group assessment and intervention
· Identity group (racial, gender, ethnic, age, nationality, sexual orientation, life span, disability groups, social prejudice, culture, religion, belief systems, organizational hierarchy role).
Primarily Organizational/Systemic-level Core Competencies
· Organizational diagnosis including systemic assessment of the entire organization or large
component parts of the organization and diversity cohorts within the organization’s
stakeholder groups
· Attitude, climate, and satisfaction surveys, including partitioned profiles representing work units, organizational level groups, diversity/multicultural groups, and upfront/non-negotiable announcements of ethical commitments: esp. confidentiality.
· Evaluation of corporate management philosophy, organizational culture and nature of systemic stressors
· Work-flow and project planning activities [e.g., gannt, pert, fishbone]
· Identification of aggregate performance measures; charting and plotting measures
· Assessment of organizational values and management practices and philosophy/policy
· Organizational level interventions; collating data; partitioning data; intervention design
·
Change management of
organizational systems
In the following sections of this document the core CP/OCP competencies
are elaborated and illustrated. The competencies described here necessarily
constitute an abbreviated listing of skills important in becoming a consulting
psychologist.
I. Individual Domain. Consulting Psychology Competencies
In the individual domain, consulting
psychologists learn the skills for performing assessments and interventions
centered on persons as separate entities in organizational and work contexts.
Consulting psychologists are recommended to learn the knowledge, skills, and
abilities required to assess and intervene with individuals in non-clinical
work- and career-related contexts, and how to differentiate between situations
requiring assessment or intervention with abnormal psychological conditions and
those with the more normal range of behavior.
A. Individual-Level Assessment - Doctoral level consulting psychologists
understand and learn to competently employ individual level assessment methods
and techniques appropriate for the types of problems and issues confronted by
individuals in work, career, and organizational contexts. They become competent
in psychometric issues in individual assessment, and procedures for conducting
valid individual level assessments and evaluations
for purposes of career assessment, personnel selection, personal development,
and in the context of determining appropriateness for, and specific needs of,
coaching and counseling of persons in the work and career context. Such
assessments are based on relevant evaluations using, as appropriate,
psychological tests and other assessment procedures and include
understanding of the legal and regulatory context in which individual
assessments occur (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
2002, Standard 9).
The consulting psychologist learns
to understand intrapsychic level dynamics affecting observed individual
behavior and can integrate this information into decision making regarding
interventions appropriate for the client's situational context. CP individual
level assessment skills do not normally include assessment of abnormal
personality or mental dysfunction except to the extent that the CP learns to
recognize what impacts on work performance and, then, to differentiate persons
whose individual needs may require a different type of intervention, such as a
referral for a formal mental health evaluation or intervention.
Doctoral-level consulting psychologists learn individual level assessment methodologies, including skills required for the administration and interpretation of a representative-level sample of relevant instruments and in providing feedback to individuals completing such measures (Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct 2002, 9.01-9.11). These guidelines intentionally do not specify a list of assessment devices, procedures, or psychological tests (e.g., specific measures of occupational interests, abilities, and personality traits) in which consulting psychologists become competent, since any such list would quickly become outdated or irrelevant. It is advised that the consulting psychologist learn meta-skills in individual-level psychological test administration, interpretation, and feedback and experience administering, interpreting, and providing feedback with a sufficiently large number of scientifically sound instruments that new tests can quickly be mastered as they become available.
For competence in working at the individual level, the CP learns to define relevant assessment questions, to choose appropriate instrumentation, to administer the relevant tests, and to provide feedback, both test results and pertinent behaviorally-based feedback, to all relevant parties. Feedback includes helping the individual(s) assessed (and other relevant parties, such as third parties) understand the results and limitations of the assessment, helping to place the results in the appropriate organizational context, such as company culture and employee classifications and federal/state regulatory obligations [as represented in payroll categories, union membership, and safety requirements such as hard-hats, addressing the affective aspects of such feedback, and helping identify relevant individual – situational (including, but not limited to: interpersonal, identity groups, corporate purpose/values/structure/management practices) implications of the results of the assessment.
Thus, consulting psychologists learn to identify and put into a developmental and organizational context the strengths and limitations of each of several assessment methods: empirical methods (e.g., behavioral, content analysis), psychometric methods (cognition-learning, affect-behavior, conation-willing i.e., integrative decision making), and more intuitive methods (projective and other). The history of the development of each methodology is supplemented with detailed exposure to preferred techniques, emphasizing the strengths and limitations that pertain to diagnostic outcomes specific to CP/OCP: classification for description, evaluation, placement; classification for performance competency; classification for consultant-intervention, therapeutic recommendations, or referral for clinical treatment.
At the individual level, the consulting psychologist learns
to understand and integrate the various components of psychological assessment
(e.g., test results, behavioral observational data, relevant background and
life history information) and to synthesize these data into pragmatically
relevant results. The consulting psychologist is skilled in a range of
individual-level assessment procedures (e.g., objective, projective, structured
observation, ethnographic field methods, interviews, ethical standards assuring
privacy and confidentiality [Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
2002, Standard 4]), and applies synthesis thinking to produce integrated
results that are germane to the referral question(s) for which the assessment
was undertaken.
B. Individual-Level Interventions - Consulting psychologists learn to
implement a range of interventions that focus on the individual development
level and are sensitive to life span perspectives and individual experiences.
These interventions can be classified as educational, training; coaching; and,
counseling.
1.
Educational - Consulting psychologists learn how to provide
educational-based interventions for individuals. The goal of such activities would be to promote the
acquisition and use of new knowledge by clients. The range and depth of such educational interventions will vary
greatly and may incorporate various modalities including face-to-face and
various telecommunications-based formats.
2. Training - Practitioners learn how to provide
training interventions for individuals.
The goals of such activities are to assist individuals in developing and
strengthening skills relevant to the workplace. The range and types of skills
applicable to jobs are enormous, and it is not expected that organizational
consulting psychologists be able to demonstrate competency in all of them. However, practitioners are able to assess
problems and design skill-building interventions that will help clients manage
the challenges that they face.
3. Coaching - Practitioners
learn how to provide competent, assessment-anchored coaching and other individual-level
interventions. The goals of such
activities include helping clients to improve their abilities to diagnose
problems that they are confronting in the workplace, to change problematic
attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors that may interfere with their
performance, and to improve their skills, self-awareness, and self-efficacy in
their work related roles. Coaching may
include education and training interventions as part of a package of activities
that are usually negotiated and delivered to a client in the context of a
formal agreement.
4. Counseling - Consulting
psychologists learn to provide counseling interventions for individuals. The goal of such activities is to help
individuals overcome internal psychological or behavioral barriers to the
performance of their roles in the workplace.
Although consulting psychologists are familiar with and able to apply an
array of counseling theories and methods, they are not necessarily expected to
be prepared to conduct long-term mental health treatment with clients for
chronic or non-work-related conditions. Rather, consulting psychologists refer
such clients to appropriately prepared colleagues when they believe that such
care is necessary.
Foci For Individually Directed Interventions: CP/OCP training programs prepare practitioners to
intervene with individuals in the workplace who may be encountering a wide
variety of problems and issues. To be
sure and inevitably, the academic and practice aspects of the programs will not
be able to expose students to the full array of difficulties and challenges
that clients may present to them once they leave school or when transitioning
into CP / OCP. However, there are some
foci for individual interventions that may be reasonable to include in
curriculum and programs. These can
include such specific applications as those named below.
Representative
Individually-Oriented Consulting Competencies
·
Career management
·
Coaching on managerial roles
and behaviors
·
Fostering the development of
leadership and followership behavior
·
Technical roles in
organizations
·
Interpersonal relationships
and psychosocial challenges, with analysis and accommodation of issues related
to diversity (race, gender, values, sexual orientation, age, nationality) in
organizations
·
Intrapsychic aspects of work
such as motivation, resistance to change, and emotional management
·
Crisis management concerning
individual behavior in organizations
·
Individual performance in
relationship to groups and organizations
·
Role conflict management
·
Assisting individuals to work
effectively in globally oriented, culturally diverse organizations and within a
multicultural work force. (Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training,
Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists, 2002)
·
Life Span Perspectives
Course work and practicum
experiences in CP/OCP training programs integrate theory, research, technical
skills and implementation methods, and approaches to evaluating individually
based interventions. Consulting psychologists
are, ideally, prepared to design, implement, and evaluate these approaches.
C. Self-Awareness, Self-Management, and Professional and
Psychological Maturity – A general CP competency area is elaborated here
since it addresses the OCP as an individual and most individual level
assessment and intervention methods involve demonstration of certain personal
characteristics. Graduate-level and postdoctoral training programs, which can
include one-on-one supervision relevant for learning individual intervention
skills, assist learners in developing the capacity for self-directed
reflection. “Acknowledging the potential for the self to inadvertently cause
harm to clients through acts of omission or commission, whether from ignorance
or arrogant assumption, the international consultant takes time to hone the
self-as-instrument “(O’Roark, 2002, p.520).
This involves an ability to receive appropriate critical
feedback from clients and colleagues, and a willingness to change behavior as
needed [without violating essential ethics] to work effectively with
individuals with diverse identity group, organizational culture, and social
backgrounds in work-related contexts.
It is recommended that organizational consulting psychologists have
learning experiences that expose them to models and methods for accomplishing
these tasks and to demonstrate a reasonable ability to implement them. The capacity for developing self-awareness
and self-management can be strengthened and deepened in a wide variety of ways.
Curricular descriptions and policies of postdoctoral programs are suggested as
ways to inform learners how the faculty assists with the achievement of
professional and psychological maturity necessary for effective practice in the
field.
Group-level OCP competencies take
the group as the primary unit of analysis.
The group-level frame of reference, however, does not pertain only to
the interpersonal relations among members of task or cohort groups. Group domain competencies also address such
phenomena as role analysis, leader-follower behavior, interpersonal conflict,
workflow intergroup relations, diversity, authority dynamics, labor-management
relations and inter-organizational relations.
Crucial propositions are: (1) roles
in organizations are shaped by group level forces; (2) individuals in
organizations function as representatives of their work group, whether or not
they intend to do so; (3) dynamics of
task groups cannot be adequately understood independently of the external
relations/group-identifications of members of a work group; and (4) unconscious
processes within individuals, within groups and between groups affect
individual roles, intragroup dynamics, intergroup relations, and
inter-organizational relations.
In doctoral and postdoctoral
education programs in consulting psychology, psychologists learn how to carry
out interventions with groups embedded in organizations. This education includes knowledge about: (1)
the self in relation to these phenomena, such as personal prejudice and bias,
(2) relevant concepts and theories from social psychology, (3) specific and
relevant case studies and statistical research results, and (4) social
technologies appropriate to the work group.
Effective intervention is associated with favorable confluence among all
four of these elements. When knowledge
and skills [competencies] related to any aspect is missing, or if all are not
brought together in a congruous fashion, then additional OCP education is
recommended.
Types of Group-Level Assessment
and Interventions - This section elaborates specific types of group level
assessment and intervention approaches suggested as competencies for which an
organizational consulting psychologist is trained: role analysis and
re-negotiation; group formation and development; group and intergroup problem
solving; identity groups and intergoup relations; and, group level
interventions.
A. Role Analysis and
Re-negotiation - The purpose of these activities is to enable individuals
in roles within organizations to understand the forces that shape their roles
and to take constructive initiatives to adjust those forces that cause
dysfunctional consequences for themselves and/or the organization.
Consulting
psychologists learn to establish their own roles in relation to their OCP work,
know several versions of role theory (including those that take account of
group level processes), become familiar with the research on role dynamics in
organizations, and gain competency in being able to diagnosis barriers to
effectiveness, then assist clients in analyzing and re-negotiating their
roles.
B. Group Formation and
Development – Relevant OCP activities include facilitating group leaders
and members to form a group, establish productive relations between leader and
members, develop constructive relations among peers within the team, and
fashion cooperative relations between the focal team and other groups,
organizations, and stakeholders with whom the team must interact in order to
perform effectively or achieve the group objective.
Consulting
psychologists who provide this service learn to understand their own
pre-dispositions toward authority and group dynamics; gain working knowledge of
theories of group and intergroup dynamics; become familiar with the empirical
research on groups in organizations and the multicultural literature; and learn
methods for diagnosing problems of the team, designing interventions to address
those problems, and preparing the leader, team members and/or others who may be
involved in implementing interventions. The organizational consulting
psychologist gains competency in identifying both optimal, positive models of
functioning and those that are dysfunctional and/or pathology-driven.
C. Work Groups and Intergroup
Problem Solving – The organizational consulting psychologist learns
intervention skills that assist two or more identified groups with improving
their relationship in order to carry out interdependent work assignments
more effectively. Activities may be
developed for operational groups (such as engineering and production or
production and sales) that have different functions along a flow of work,
between different hierarchical-level groups (such as between field units and
headquarters), between entities attempting to merge, between labor and
management groups, or between culturally diverse members of the work group
Recommended
competencies for OCP who provide these services include learning to understand
their own predispositions toward authority and intergroup relations (especially
those that involve ethnocentric forms of conflict) in order to determine
whether they can proceed to work alone, or invite one or more consultants
representing different perspectives to assist in delivering the service. In situations requiring a team of
consultants, which may stem from self-insight, or simply the size of a project
and number of participating client-individuals, organizational consulting
psychologists who work together are prepared to manage their relations with one
another and in relation to the client in ways that enhance rather than diminish
the quality of service.
D. Identity Groups and Intergroup
Relations - Identity group
membership is defined in terms of birth and biology, including variables as
race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, family, generation, gender identity,
disability, aging, religion, social stigma, prejudice, and sexual
orientation. The OCP goal of
interventions is to eliminate group-level forces that result in members of some
identity groups within organizations being treated unfairly by members of other
identity groups on such matters as work assignments, salaries, and promotional
opportunities. Interventions to alter
unfairness among identity groups include educational activities that expand the
knowledge and self-awareness of individuals, and designing and recommending
procedures that adjust distribution of authority and power among identity
groups within organizations.
Competencies recommended for
organizational consulting psychologists who provide these services include
methods for assessing their own identities in relation to the client
organizations where they provide services, and learn strategies for working
cooperatively with members diverse identity groups to effect change (e.g., whites
with blacks, women with men, etc.).
They become knowledgeable about theory and research concerning the
identity groups and cultures with which they interact. They adapt interventions
appropriate to the conditions found in organizations, and the diagnosed
problems facing work groups.
E. Group-Level Interventions
- Consulting psychologists learn to apply what they have learned about groups
to address specific issues and problems within the organizational/systems
context. Relevant competency areas include, e.g., managing group conflict,
enhancing group functioning so that it is better aligned with organizational
objectives, assisting groups in creating conditions of social support to
ameliorate the effects of organizational and occupational stress, and helping
organizations design work groups that effectively bridge individual and
organizational needs.
This domain focuses on interventions
in which entire organizations is either the targeted intervention level, or in
which the organization itself is integral in effecting changes to segments of
the larger organization or system. In
order for the organizational consulting psychologist to play useful roles in
conducting organization-level interventions, recommended competencies include
developing, managing, and interpreting surveys (such as, organizational culture
assessments and employee opinion /satisfaction polls); designing and
participating in leadership of organizational strategic planning, change
management programs; and organization effectiveness/ management development
programs or research and evaluation functions.
Competencies recommended in conjunction with this domain of intervention
include those addressing organization theory and design; organizational
assessment competencies: organizational diagnosis; organizational change; and
the consultation process.
A. Organization Theory and Design
/Organization Structures: Prior to practicing organization-level
assessments and interventions, consulting psychologists learn about
organizations, understand structures and systems for organizing work, and
develop a solid theoretical foundation from which to make recommendations. Training in organizational theory, behavior,
and design are the foundations from which intervention are designed. Relevant
topic areas include: organizational theory: modern and historical (e.g.,
scientific management, the human relations movement, open systems theory, and
organizational diagnostic theory); organizational structure and design (e.g.,
legal structures; centralization/decentralization, matrix configurations);
organizational ecology (e.g., the effects of size, growth, market and life
cycle); organizational effectiveness (business planning; financial indicators;
industry benchmarking) globalization (economic, social, and legal challenges;
multilingual and multicultural issues); organizational diagnosis; and
organizational culture and ethics.
B.
Organizational Assessment Competencies: Organizational Diagnosis: The goal of organizational diagnosis is to
develop an understanding of a system [it’s purpose, where things are going
well, where things are not going well] by its members by using the methods of
applied behavioral science. The phases
of organizational diagnosis include entry, data collection, analysis, and
feedback.
Consulting psychologists who
provide this service learn to develop a sound and feasible contract for doing
the diagnosis, and, then, how to carry out structured and unstructured
observation, individual and group interviews, organic and standard
questionnaires, and archival searches.
Having obtained data from multiple sources and in various forms, they
learn how to conduct appropriate qualitative and statistical analyses and to
integrate the results.
The organizational consulting
psychologist learns to present the findings from the organizational diagnosis,
both orally in appropriately designed meetings and in writing. A full blown organizational diagnosis
potentially addresses all of the foregoing areas of group-level inquiry (i.e.,
roles, teams, work-flow, and identity groups) as well as
organizational/systemic constructs. The
requirements for proper preparation in each of those areas apply to
organizational diagnosis as well.
Conversely, methods used in organizational diagnosis are also, often,
applied at the group and individual levels of interventions.
Developing
expertise in organizational surveying and other assessment methodologies
involves learning how to translate theory into applied practice. Skills to be mastered include systematic
data collection efforts including survey design implementation and evaluation.
In learning to design surveys, attention is paid to item design and item/survey
evaluation. Practice in developing
surveys, pilot testing them on representative samples, and evaluating these
pilots can be covered through a combination of class projects and
practica. Expertise in general survey
design topics might also be addressed, including the effects of factors such as
survey length, methods of distribution (anonymity, paper-and-pencil vs. IVR),
and management (database theory and design, data security). In implementation
of survey projects, a skill in client definition [who is the key client, who
comprises the client constituency to be surveyed], and, learning to develop and
negotiate clear, realistic contracts remains critical. Consulting psychologists
also learn project skills, including managing a project from initial
conceptualization to implementation and outcomes evaluation. As part of this
process, consulting psychologists learn to consider such issues as:
incorporation of key stakeholders, development and execution of communication
plans, formative and summative evaluations, and continuous quality and
operational improvement of the process itself.
Additionally, it is recommended that consideration and costing of
alternative organizational assessment procedures be covered, helping students
learn how to compare and contrast the cost-benefits of alternative strategies.
Evaluating diagnostic techniques
includes learning to use statistics to examine reliability (test-retest and
internal consistency) and validity (content, construct, criterion) of
assessment devices. It is recommended
that classical test methods, and item-based methods such as IRT, be covered in
conjunction with this work. It is advisable for the organizational consulting
psychologist to learn a variety of diagnostic assessment methodologies,
including those associated with the use of the psychologist him- or herself as
an instrument for accurate organizational diagnosis.
C. Organizational Change: The
organizational change domain focuses on working with organizations undergoing
changes that are atypical for that organization in amount, quality, or
both. A thorough understanding of
client preferences concerning perceived change needs, organization design,
theories of organizational change (including drivers of both organizational inertia
and organizational resilience), and an understanding of the characteristic
psychological processes change evokes, and how to manage those reactions,
provides the foundation for effective intervention.
Organizational
change approaches and theories of change necessarily incorporate knowledge and
theories in the individual, group, and organizational domains, developmental
theories, incorporation of the organization's history, and change management
theories and practice. Knowledge of workplace stressors and stress management
techniques becomes particularly useful during change interventions. Positive approaches (e.g., those based on
appreciative inquiry) are as important as those oriented to dysfunction.
Consultation
Process Management. The OCP competencies listing will be an evolving set of
recommendations, which will likely continue to include knowledge and skill
relevant for each consultation phase: contact and entry; contract formulation;
problem identification and diagnostic analysis; goal setting and planning;
action taking (intervention); and contract completion – continuity and
support. These service delivery and
project management competencies are integral in brief as well as extended
consultations. Additional education and
training is important for those CP who operate psychological consulting firms
or departments within firms offering broader-range consulting services to
businesses, industries, agencies, and organizations.
First and Last: Ethics.
Recommendations for ethical competencies associated with the practice of OCP
are associated with ten questions that permeate every consultation and the
answers infuse the services provided.
It is suggested that, in addition to familiarity with the APA Code of
Ethics, dialogue with a Mentor- Consultant and/or at regular professional association
gatherings enables an organizational consulting psychologist to keep ethical
competencies fresh and active.
Ø
Who is my client? The organization? The manager? The
individual employee?
Ø
What are the parameters of
confidentiality in the client’s expectation?
Are they acceptable to me?
Ø
Are the goals of the
organization and consulting contract congruent with my personal and
professional values and ethics?
Ø
What rights, power, and
freedom does each individual participant in the consultation process have? Are these acceptable to me?
Ø
How do I balance the task
dimension and the human dimension of my work with this organization?
Ø
What control do I have over
the use and dissemination of information I gather as a consultant?
Ø
What are the parameters of my
accountability? Are they acceptable to me?
Ø
Do I have the skills to be an
effective and efficient consultant to this organization and for this concern?
Ø
How do I bridge the gap
between maintaining the high standards of my profession and the profit motive
that permeates consultation?
Ø
How do I maintain objectivity
and independence and avoid being used by one faction of the organization?
Ethical dilemmas for Consulting Psychologists, in general,
and Organizational Consulting
Psychologists in
particular were introduced into the most recent editing of the APA Ethical
Principles and greater specificity and clarity is being developed. For example, the SCP Fellows Invited Address
at the 2005 APA Convention will speak to these dilemmas (Bradt, 2005):
“Codes of ethics are most helpful when they are specific and unambiguous. Our APA code is very clear about some of the thou-shalt-nots, as in sex with clients/patients, and it is also quite straightforward about conflict of interest issues, e.g., the dual relationship pitfalls. But codes are less helpful addressing questions of how one should react when personal values clash with perceived values of the individual or organizational client.
“Such questions may arise in two contexts.
One involves decisions about whether to accept employment or contract work with
an organization. The other involves questions of what to do if, in the course
of providing service to a client, one discovers a profound difference in
values.”
Former SCP President Kenneth Bradt suggests that while all professions have codes of ethics and while heavy legal requirements speak to some issues, individual decisions often come down to very personal value judgments of right and wrong. Those in the behavioral sciences and especially the helping professions may confront them more often, perhaps in part because they are attuned to the broader social implications of their work. Those engaged in organizational consulting psychology will face difficult and unexpected decisions when they encounter behaviors and philosophies within an organization that are repugnant to them personally. Thus, attention to ethical issues becomes a first, last and ongoing area for competency maintenance and refinement.
Section D: References
References
used as policy parameters, guides, and prototype models are named in
A.3.(b). Representative “References”
of classic and recent literature is provided as a starting point for those
interested in exploring organizational consulting psychology further.
References
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Section E: Appendices
E.1. Brief Background Information: Authors/ Contributors to CP/OCP Guidelines
E.2. 1997/8
CP/OCP Guidelines Planning Grid
E.3. SCP CP/OCP Guidelines Development Timetable
E.5. Overview of CP/OCP Guidelines: Principles, General Competencies,
Domain Specific Competencies
E. 6. . Most Influence on 20th Century
Consulting Psychology, p.1. SCP
1999-2000
Survey