Articles and Book Chapters on Lesbian and Gay Parenting
Agbayewa, M. (1984). Fathers in the newer family forms: Male or female? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 29(5), 402-406.
Explores the alterations in social roles and functions in the family by looking at children raised by homosexual couples. Presents a theoretical review of sexual development in children, including biological, social learning, and cognitive development theories. Uses case study of a 6-year-old boy in a lesbian family to discuss the limitations of current sex-role development theories and the application to gay and lesbian families. Reviews the literature on father-absence and the roles of fathers and mothers, men and women. Suggests that women may function as fathers in certain family forms. Notes the need for longitudinal studies of children raised in these newer family constellations.
Baggett, C. (1992). Sexual orientation: Should it affect child custody rulings? Law and Psychology Review, 16(171), 189-200.
Reviews the current laws regarding custody cases as they affect gay and lesbian parents. Reviews important cases with regard to legal principles used in determining custody: the Per Se Classification; the Nexus Approach, and Using the Nexus Approach as a Minor Factor. Reviews whether sexual orientation should be a factor in child custody cases. Judges have at times used the "fear of harassment" to the child as a basis for judgement. Concludes that there have been gradual changes in court rulings and in particular using sex orientation as deeming a parent unfit. The author suggests that the court needs to examine each case and the context presented, rather than allowing itself to be influenced by "community biases" Only then can the courts begin to address what is "... in the true best interest of the children (p. 200)."
Baptiste, D. A., (1987). The gay and lesbian stepparent family. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 112-137). New York: Praeger.
Discusses the dynamics of gay/lesbian stepparent families and the unique challenges faced by them that arise from the larger society's, as well as the lesbian women's and (especially) gay male communities', refusal to recognize the legitimacy of such families. The effects of stigma and secrecy on the gay/lesbian stepparent family are discussed as they affect partner, parent/child, and stepsibling relationships.
Barret, R. L. & Robinson, B. E. (1994). Gay dads. In Gottfried and Gottfried (Eds.), Redefining families: Implications for children's development (pp. 157-170). New York: Plenum Press.
Addresses three main questions: Who are gay fathers, how do gay fathers become parents, and how do the children of gay fathers turn out? Uses case studies and a literature review to answer these questions. Concludes that caution must be exercised in making sweeping generalizations about gay fathers and their families until larger and more representative samples are obtained.
Basile, R.A. (1974). Lesbian mothers I. Women's Rights Law Reporter, 2, 3-25.
A time capsule, with its companion piece "Custody and Homosexual Parents," that provides a thorough view of the issues relevant to child custody cases at that time. Through its numerous references, brings facts from anthropology, law, psychology, sociology, and other disciplines to illuminate the reader's understanding of the legal reasoning used in prominent cases of the early 1970s involving challenges to the custody rights of lesbian women and gay men. Issues of parental fitness, best interests of the child, and homophobia in the law are discussed with a minimum of legalese.
Beargie, R. A. (1988). Custody determinations involving the homosexual parent. Family Law Quarterly, 22, 71-86.
Discusses the constitutionality of basing custody decisions on sexual orientation and some approaches taken by the courts to deal with this issue. Gives special focus to the South Carolina courts and describes a model approach.
Belcastro, P. A., Gramlich, T., Nicholson, T., Price, J., & Wilson, R. (1993). A review of data-based studies addressing the effects of homosexual parenting on children's sexual and social functioning. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 20 (1/2), 105-122.
Summarizes the results of a computer and manual search of the published literature focused on children raised in gay and lesbian households. Studies were selected on the basis of the following criteria: data-based, post-1975 publications; independent variable/homosexual parent; and dependent variable/some aspect of the child's sexual or social functioning. Includes 14 studies that met the criteria. Concludes that the published research database is too weak to support a definitive conclusion that there are no significant differences in children raised by lesbian mothers versus those raised by heterosexual mothers.
Bigner, J. J., & Bozett, F. W. (1990). Parenting by gay fathers. Marriage and Family Review, 14(3/4), 155-175.
Asserts that gay fathers have a more complex psychosocial environment than other gay men or heterosexuals because they have to integrate the conflicting role demands of both the gay and heterosexual worlds. Sections deal with motivations for becoming a parent, relationships with children, the parenting styles of gay fathers, and specific issues such as disclosure to children and spouses. Implications for educators, family law professionals, and therapists are drawn. Provides a fairly wide introduction to issues surrounding gay male parenthood among heterosexually married men. Research cited in support of general assertions is usually survey-type with convenience samples. Attempts to relate the dilemma of gay fathers to social theory of Gibbs and Martin (1964) by invoking "low status integration" as a defining characteristic of gay fatherhood.
Bozett, F. W. (1987). Gay and lesbian parents: Future perspectives. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 231-236). New York: Praeger.
Notes obstacles met by gay/lesbian parents that arise from both the gay/lesbian and nongay communities, especially the absence of legal recognition for same-sex marriages. Argues for the development of a theoretical frame from which to view gay/lesbian families and lists priorities for research on gay/lesbian families.
Bozett, F. W. (1989). Gay fathers: A review of literature. Journal of Homosexuality, 18 (1/2), 137-162.
Reviews the empirical literature on gay fathers. Groups articles dealing with gay fathers into categories depending upon whether or not a comparison group is used (gay-vs.-nongay fathers, gay fathers-vs.-lesbian mothers) and summarizes each. Studies with no comparison group use survey data from selected samples to describe concerns of gay parenthood as they relate to theoretical issues. Reports using comparison groups contrast several variables such as willingness to parent, degree of closeness to child, masculinity, and so forth. Makes several generalizations about gay fathers, based on literature reviewed. Can serve as an introduction to gay fathers and their unique issues. Notes that too little research has been done to support most of the generalizations drawn.
Bozett, F. W., & Sussman, M. B. (1990). Homosexuality and family relations: Views and research issues. Marriage and Family Review, 14(3/4), 1-8.
A commentary on how homosexuality affects family relationships. Discusses areas for future research. Notes that acceptance of a family member's homosexuality may be particularly difficult for fathers and sons. Family members may have difficulty accepting the gay member's lover or friends. Parents may be concerned with the possibility of not having grandchildren. Research is needed to investigate whether gay/lesbian adolescents experience problems that other adolescents do not experience. Research is needed around lesbian parenting, custody issues, and the treatment of expectant lesbian mothers in the lesbian community. Lifespan studies of gays, the effect of AIDS in families, and the relationship of homosexual couples are other topics in need of investigation.
Carl, D. (1990). Parenting/blended family issues. In D. Carl (Ed.), Couseling same-sex couples (pp. 91-106). New York: Norton.
Presents some of the author's thoughts on issues confronting gay parents, with many being similar to issues facing "blended families" in general. No research study is presented and no literature review cited. Three elements that families deal with are: individual needs, the couple's needs, and the family's needs. Notes that it is usually the couple's needs that get neglected with negative effects for future family functioning. The issues of gay parents being partially or totally "cut off" from their children, at times through court rulings, places further stress on individuals, couples, and families. Discusses the complexities for gay parents and couples in working out visitation which can come under informal and formal custody arrangements, along with the added stress gay/lesbian parents face in developing support networks in the community. The stress developed through secrecy is an issue presented in work with couples and parents. Suggests the active development of networks with the help of the therapist and the need for therapists to move beyond more traditional therapy roles as ways to increase and at times develop non-existent support networks.
Clunis, D. M., & Green, G. D. (1988). Lesbian couples with children. In D. M. Clunis & G. D. Green (Eds.), Lesbian couples (pp. 113-130). Seattle, WA: Seal Press.
Descriptive chapter on issues of coming out, custody, legal rights, and roles of nonbiological parents; guidelines for coming out to children; and the relationship between the lesbian-headed family and society. Authors explore these issues for lesbian families where a couple has a child together, where one or both partners bring children from prior marriages, and where a child is added to children from a prior marriage.
Cramer, D. (1986). Gay parents and their children: A review of research and practical implications. Journal of Counseling and Development, 64, 504-507.
Reviews the research pertaining to the social, psychological, and legal concerns about the influence of gay/lesbian parents on their children's development. Focuses on three areas of reported concern: development (i.e., gender role and sexual orientation development), sexual abuse, and children's peer responses toward having a lesbian/gay parent(s). Reports that (a) parent sexual orientation does not play an important role in the child's sexual development, (b) children of gay/lesbian parents appear to adopt an "appropriate" gender-role identity; (c) there is no evidence that gay parents are likely to sexually abuse their same-sex child or reject their opposite-sex child, and (d) gay/lesbian parents consistently report an awareness that their children may experience social disapproval and make attempts to protect their children from harassment. Notes that concern about peer reactions generally were more acute during adolescence. Briefly describes the impact of family divorce and the role of the nongay parent in the child's adjustment, the process of the parent's coming out to children, and general implications for counseling.
DiLapi, E. M. (1989). Lesbian mothers and the motherhood hierarchy. Journal of Homosexuality, 18(1/2), 101-121.
Presents a conceptual framework, the "Motherhood Hierarchy," with which to view lesbian mothers that reflects and reinforces American societal values of compulsory motherhood and compulsory heterosexuality. Women are placed on the hierarchy according to sexual orientation and family form, heterosexual women in nuclear families at the apex, and lesbian women in nontraditional families at the bottom. Article elaborates, through child custody case material, how this hierarchy perpetuates the unequal distribution of power and resources through formal and informal social policy as it relates to parenting, denying lesbian women reproductive freedom afforded to heterosexual women. Myths regarding lesbian motherhood are addressed and refuted through summaries of the research literature.
Erlichman, K. L. (1988). Lesbian mothers: Ethical issues in social work practice. Women and Therapy, 8, 207-224.
Discusses how homophobic attitudes in the United States have denied rights to lesbian mothers, including custody of their children. Reviews the literature on legal, ethical, and psychological issues facing lesbian mothers and provides recommendations for human services professionals who work with lesbian mothers.
Evans, B. K. (1990). Mothering as a lesbian issue. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy, 2(1), 43-52.
Examines issues for lesbian women who want children, lesbian women who have children from prior heterosexual relationships, lesbian nonmothers, and issues affecting the partners of lesbian mothers. Clinical case examples are presented for each situation, as well as techniques for exploring mothering issues with lesbian women.
Falk, P. J. (1989). Lesbian mothers--psychosocial assumptions in family law. American Psychologist, 44, 941-947.
Reviews and critiques the research on a number of important questions relating to lesbian custody, including the mental health of lesbian women and their children, gender-role development, sexual orientation, and social stigma of children raised by lesbian mothers.
Falk, P. J. (1994). The gap between psychosocial assumptions and empirical research in lesbian mother child custody cases. In A. E. Gottfried and A. W. Gottfried (Eds.), Redefining families: Implications for children's development (pp. 131 - 156). New York: Plenum Press.
Uses a growing and consistent body of literature to argue against common psychosocial assumptions made in lesbian mother child custody cases. Points to two major categories of assumptions: those about the lesbian mother and her lifestyle and those about the impact of the lesbian mother on the development of the child. Notes two general assumptions frequently made by the courts about lesbian mothers: all homosexual individuals, including lesbian mothers, are mentally ill, and all lesbian women are less maternal and poorer mothers than their heterosexual counterparts. Discusses common assumptions about the health and welfare, as well as gender and sexual orientation of children of lesbian mothers. Citing empirical research, concludes that there are no significant differences between lesbian mothers and their heterosexual counterparts or between children raised by lesbian mothers and those raised by heterosexual mothers. States that there is no empirical evidence that children of lesbian mothers suffer any detrimental effects. Suggests that legal decision-makers should not focus on the sexual orientation of a parent or guardian when making custody decisions.
Gibbs, E. D. (1988). Psychosocial development of children raised by lesbian mothers: A review of research. Women and Therapy, 8, 65-75.
Reviews the issues facing lesbian mothers and their children. Reviews the literature on psychological adjustment of lesbian mothers and concludes that neither lesbian mothers nor their children show evidence of psychological distress.
Goldyn, L. (1981). Gratuitous language in appellate cases involving gay people: "Queer baiting" from the bench. Political Behavior, 3(1), 31-48.
Examines federal and state appellate cases where homosexual behavior was under judicial scrutiny. Reports that gay and lesbian litigants were frequently the recipients of judges' gratuitous comments. The frequency of such remarks depended upon a number of factors including the type of case. In child custody cases, mild forms of negative comments occurred frequently. Although not directly related to lesbian mother custodial cases, article describes the courtroom climate for lesbians and gay men.
Gottman, J. S. (1990). Children of gay and lesbian parents. Marriage and Family Review, 14(3/4), 177-196.
Reviews research on children of lesbian and gay parents. Studies of these children, though methodologically flawed, suggest no compelling differences from their heterosexually raised peers with regard to various measures of adjustment. Research on adult daughters of lesbian mothers further supports this contention. Provides suggestions for further research.
Gottsfield, R. L. (1985). Child custody and sexual lifestyle. Conciliation Courts Review, 23(1), 43-45.
Gives a brief overview of the present state of the law on the effect of a parent's sexual variation--cohabitation (straight or gay), marital, and post-marital relationships (including adulterous relationships) on a child custody or visitation dispute. Recommends the use of two experts, one familiar with parent and child, and one, an authority on sexual variation.
Greene, B. (1990). Sturdy bridges: The role of African-American mothers in the socialization of African-American children. Women and Therapy, 10(1/2) 205-225.
A critical analysis of the role of African-American mothers in the socialization of African-American children. Stresses the reconceptualization of the role particularly as it relates to clinical intervention. Discusses the role of the African-American mother in protecting, educating, and helping the African-American child in negotiating a bicultural environment that is openly hostile. Examines the particular stress of teaching about racial dangers, racism, and sexism within the role of the African-American mother. Places stressors affecting "nontraditional Black lesbian mothers" within the context of racism, sexism, and the homophobic attitudes and biases of both heterosexual and homosexual communities. Stresses the tendency for mainstream theories to pathologize these nontraditional roles and the need for reconceptualization. Strongly delineates the tremendous need to analyze problems within the context of the chronic stress of "survival" for many African-American mothers.
Green, G. D. (1987). Lesbian mothers: Mental health considerations. In F. W. Bozett, Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 188-198). New York: Praeger.
Views the mental health needs of lesbian mothers as being no different than that of other mothers, though lesbian mothers may have additional needs related to societal treatment of homosexuals and particularly lesbians as mothers. Focuses on this issue by discussing the different ways that lesbian women may become parents (i.e., in heterosexual relationships, through artificial insemination with a known or unknown donor, and adoption). Discusses one subject in the context of a homophobic and heterosexist society and the strain this puts on lesbian parents, their children, and their parents.
Green, G. D. & Bozett, F. W. (1991). Lesbian mothers and gay fathers. In J.C. Gonsiorek & J. D. Weinrich (Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy (pp. 197-214). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Presents brief synopses of many reports on gay and lesbian parents, addressing a variety of issues such as signs of psychopathology in children, gender differences in parenting behavior, and differences in contrast to nongay parents, children's acceptance of parents' sexual orientation, degree of "outness" to children, gender identity and sexual orientation development in children of gay and lesbian parents, and degree of involvement with opposite sex as role models for children. Public policy concerns are also presented, specifically with respect to custodial rights and adoption and foster care. Makes the point that the majority of state laws restricting gay and lesbian parental rights are based on prejudice rather than on scientific facts. Authors' opinions on a number of controversial issues are occasionally not substantiated by the studies they present (e.g., that the AIDS crisis is making more gay men think about becoming fathers in the context of a committed and presumably safe relationship). Provides a fairly quick introduction to the majority of the literature on the subject. The limitations of the studies are generally dealt with candidly. The arguments for social change are persuasive.
Gunter, P. L. (1992). Social work with nontraditional families. In N. J. Woodman (Ed.), Lesbian and gay lifestyles: A guide for counseling and education (pp. 87-109). New York: Irvington.
Discusses problems and stresses for individuals within families (of origin and choice) and society. Recommendations for clinicians are made based on a casework model that assumes the primacy of the family as a focus for intervention.
Hall, M. (1978). Lesbian families: Cultural and clinical issues. Social Work, 23, 380-385.
Discusses effective social work practices with lesbian couples and their children. It refers to social stigma of lesbian mothers.
Herman, S. P. (1990). Special issues in child custody evaluations. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(6), 969-974.
Discusses the forensic psychiatrist's role in child custody cases. Mentions the historical reluctance of the courts to grant custody to gay or lesbian parents and notes the evidence that homosexuality per se is not a detriment to effective parenting. Provides a brief review of recent varying court opinions regarding the fitness of lesbian and gay parents.
Hitchens, D. (1979/80). Social attitudes, legal standards, and personal trauma in child custody cases. Journal of Homosexuality, 5, 89-95.
Describes the issues addressed in lesbian/gay custody cases (i.e., concerns about the sexual orientation of the child, the development of "appropriate" gender role identity, the presumed superiority of a heterosexual home environment, the potential for a child to experience stigma, and the courts' duty to "protect" the child from a homosexual parent). Authors state that the "best interest standard has no legal definition, hence judges may use their own criteria. There is no requirement that a judge establish a specific connection (or nexus) between a mother's lesbian sexual orientation and its effect on her children." Suggests that the psychological trauma of a child custody case is magnified for the lesbian/gay parent because of the lack of respect demonstrated by judges and attorneys for the parent's sexual orientation.
Joseph, G. I. (1984). Black mothers and daughters: Traditional and new populations. Sage: A Scholarly Journal on Black Women, 1(2), 17-21.
Reports that Black lesbian women do not pose a problem within the Black community, but that the negative attitudes of family and community do present a problem. Asserts that Black lesbian mothers have always existed and will continue to do so. Reproductive technology has assisted in making this even more possible. Cites the similarities found in the research between heterosexual and lesbian mothers and their children. Although not a research article, it is one of few articles that acknowledge Black lesbian mothers.
Kirkpatrick, M. (1987). Clinical implications of lesbian mother studies. Journal of Homosexuality, 14(1/2), 201-211.
Cites research data from previous studies and clinical examples to illustrate some of the similarities and differences between lesbian mothers and heterosexual mothers. Concludes the following: lesbian mothers had more congenial relationships with their ex-husbands than heterosexual mothers; lesbian women reported children had more contact with their fathers; lesbian women reported more concern about providing opportunities for their children to develop good relationships with men than heterosexual women; lesbian mothers had more men as family friends and included more male relatives in activities than heterosexual mothers; and both lesbians and heterosexual mothers experience difficulties in the areas of child care, have a need for improved employment skills, and face financial difficulties. Lesbian mothers experienced a greater lack of social and family support. With regard to the children's development, concludes that there is no evidence to support that children are negatively affected by their mother's sexual orientation, and there are effects on children with either lesbian or heterosexual mothers from the experience of divorce.
Kleber, D. J., Howell, R. J., & Tibbits-Kleber, A. L., (1986). The impact of parental homosexuality in child custody cases: A review of literature. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 14, 81-87.
Reviews a number of studies investigating effects of lesbian mothering on various aspects of child development and summarizes findings indicating no evidence of detrimental effects. Discusses a number of specific custody issues as well as social factors relevant to lesbian motherhood. Calls for increased awareness of the facts of homosexual parenting by professionals involved in homosexual parent-child custody cases.
Krestan, J. (1988). Lesbian daughters and lesbian mothers: The crisis of disclosure from a family systems perspective. Journal of Psychotherapy and the Family, 3(4),113-130.
Working from a Bowen family system perspective, a critical aspect of the therapeutic task with lesbian clients is that of coaching them to "come out" in the family of origin. Discusses the disclosure of lesbianism, particularly that of a daughter to a mother or a mother to a daughter. Examines the societal context in which a woman makes a lesbian choice and discusses the necessity for disclosure. Presents the particular issues and difficulties involved, the clinical methodology used, and some common results. Case examples illustrate the ideas discussed.
Leonard, A. S. (1991). Homophobia, heterosexism and judicial decision making. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy, 1(4), 65-91.
In a tightly and lucidly written analysis of three homosexual rights cases, the author examines the influence of homophobia and heterosexism on the presiding judges' reasoning processes. The cases analyzed are Bowers v. Hardwick (Supreme Court decision upholding the Georgia sodomy statute), Padula v. Webster (U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia upholding the FBI's refusal to hire a lesbian woman), and Constant A. v. Paul C.A. (Superior Court of Pennsylvania denying joint custody to a divorced lesbian women).
Mayadas, N., & Duehn, W. D. (1976). Children in gay families: An investigation of services. The Homosexuality Counseling Journal, 3, 70-83, 102.
One of the earliest articles to describe the challenges facing lesbian and gay families and the absence of support from social service agencies to meet their needs. Describes a pilot program delivered by a social service agency to meet the needs of gay parents and their children.
Morales, E. S. (1990). Ethnic minority families and minority gays and lesbians. Marriage and Family Review, 14(3/4), 217-239.
Discusses the complex patterns of stress and developmental features of gay men and lesbian women who are also from ethnic minority groups. Visible and invisible minority are used as terms in considering ethnic minority gay men and lesbian women, the former being related to features that one cannot hide, for example skin color; and the latter being a characteristic that can be kept secret, for example, sexual orientation. Ethnic minority gays and lesbians face complex challenges in integrating the attitudes and reactions of three different groups: mainstream society, White gays and lesbians, and the ethnic family/community context. Ethnic minority gay men and lesbian women experience discrimination not only within the mainstream society at large, both with regard to their sexual orientation and ethnic minority identification, but also within the White gay and lesbian community as well. Stresses the need to integrate the complex issues of cultural and ethnic diversity and the reactions of different ethnic groups to disclosure of a family member's being gay or lesbian. Family for the ethnic minority member is, in particular, seen as a vital element in issues of identity development and system supports available to the ethnic minority gay and lesbian client. Discusses identity formation and presents a synthesis that relates to models of identity development for ethnic minorities and for lesbian women and gay men. Suggests five stages: denial of conflicts, bisexual versus gay/lesbian, conflicts in allegiances, establishing priorities in allegiance, and integrating the various communities. Notes that the "state" concept allows for a person to be at one or more states, depending on the context he/she is trying to cope with. Also presents the implications for therapy and the need to critically evaluate family context.
Nungesser, L. G. (1980). Theoretical basis for research on the acquisition of social sex roles by children of lesbian mothers. Journal of Homosexuality, 5(3), 177-187.
Reviews the literature on the assessment of sex-typing in individuals and how masculine and feminine behaviors have been classified. Describes how children learn by modeling behavior. Reviews the literature on lesbian mothers in order to present descriptions of characteristics that are unique to lesbians that might affect the sex-typed behavior of children.
Osman, S. (1972). My stepfather is a she. Family Process, 11, 209-218.
Presents a case study of family therapy conducted with a lesbian couple and their two sons. Therapy was initiated around the acting-out behavior of the oldest son (15 years old), which the boy attempted to blame on his discovery of his mother's lesbianism. Suggests that the nontraditional structure of the family was not a direct contributor to the family dynamics. Observes that the issue of homosexuality was in the background for all involved. Clinicians are advised to be aware of their own biases within the current cultural matrix.
Patterson, C. (1992). Children of lesbian and gay parents. Child Development, 63, 1025-1042.
Reviews research done on children of lesbian and gay parents. Presents estimates of the number of children of lesbian and gay parents. Research reviewed has significant implications: dealing with child development theories and challenges to traditional views regarding the concept of "family" and what is needed for normal development; legal and public policy issues revolving around child custody decisions, foster care placements, adoption, parental rights, best interests of the child, and definitions of who is a parent; and social and cultural issues regarding the more recent development of large numbers of openly self-identified lesbians and gay men. Diversity of different family systems, for example, lesbian couples who are giving birth to children through donor insemination, is also another factor making research on children's development important. Reviews the comparative research looking at children of gay and lesbian parents and children of heterosexual parents in detail. Children of gay and lesbian parents did not differ significantly nor were they at any greater risk than children of heterosexual parents on many different variables, including development of gender identity, role behavior, sexual preference, risk for abuse and neglect, mental health variables, peer relationships, locus of control, moral judgment, self-concept, and intelligence. Notes the need for more research across different groups; longitudinal paradigms; and research looking more at "process" variables, rather than traditional "structural" concepts. Notes that most of the studies are based on a very homogeneous sample that are basically White, from this country, and middle-to-upper-middle class. Suggests there is a need for research with families from different ethnic, racial, and cultural minorities. Discusses the need for research findings to inform and guide legal and public policy debates and decisions.
Patterson, C. (1994). Lesbian and gay couples considering parenthood: An agenda for research, service, and advocacy. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 1(2), 33-55.
Set against a foreground of prejudice, discrimination, and heterosexism, the needs of lesbian and gay couples considering parenthood are discussed. The article addresses innovative services, directions for further research, and service/advocacy.
Patterson, C. (I995). Lesbian mothers, gay fathers and their children. In A. R. D'Augelli and C. Patterson, Lesbian, gay and bisexual identities across the lifespan: psychological perspectives (pp. 262-290). New York: Oxford University Press.
Provides review of literature on lesbian and gay parents and their children. Organizes research into two categories: (1) parents whose children were born when they were heterosexually married and (2) parents whose children came to them after their lesbian or gay identities emerged. Carefully delineates why interest in this field is growing: an increase in interest in parenting by gay men and lesbians, an unfolding social phenomenon that is of interest in itself, and an increasing number of legal custody cases involving gay or lesbian parents. Separates out empirical from survey studies and candidly points out difficulties in a number of the cited studies. Suggests that research on gay and lesbian families has reached a turning point in that it is no longer enough to dispel myths about negative outcomes, leaving open the possibility to explore the diversity among these families. Makes a strong case for longitudinal analysis and for viewing whole family systems.
Pies, C. A. (1987). Considering parenthood: psychosocial issues for gay men and lesbians choosing alternative fertilization. In F. W. Bozett, (Ed.), Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 165-174). New York: Praeger.
Discusses the choice of parenting within the lesbian and gay communities and the decision for alternative fertilization. Discusses this parenting option in terms of its psychosocial and ethical issues for lesbian women and gay men. Also discusses AIDS and artificial insemination as well as the implications for professionals and research.
Pies, C. A. (1990). Lesbians and the choice to parent. Marriage and Family Review, 14(3/4), 137-154.
Explores the issues facing lesbian women who are deciding to become parents. Issues and comments are derived from women who have participated in lesbian parenting workshops since 1976. Issues include: reasons for wanting a child, internalized homophobia, families of origin, conception or adoption, known or unknown donors, legal protections for the nonbiological parent, legal protections regarding known donors, dealing with work and money, and sustaining intimacy and commitment in the couple relationship. Implications for psychotherapists are offered.
Polikoff, N. (1986). Lesbian mothers, lesbian families: Legal obstacles, legal challenges. Review of Law and Social Change, 14(4), 907-914.
Taken from a speech made by the author. Describes the inherent contradiction for feminists between wanting the courts to view lesbian mothers as no different from heterosexual mothers, and at the same time not wanting to uphold traditional patriarchal values. By asserting that children raised by lesbian mothers typically adopt a heterosexual orientation, the legal and psychological social structure perpetuates that heterosexuality is preferable to homosexuality. Further describes the issues of lesbians choosing to have children and the subsequent lack of legal status for the nonbiological mothers. Argues for legal parenthood for both mothers. Lastly, describes how the AIDS crisis has affected lesbian mothers' custody cases and contributed to greater social invisibility for lesbian women.
Ricketts, W. & Achtenberg, R. (1987). The adoptive and foster gay and lesbian parent. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 89-111). New York: Praeger.Addresses the history, legal issues, and trends regarding gays and lesbians' becoming adoptive and foster parents. The placement of gay, lesbian, and sexual-minority youth in gay and lesbian homes and joint and second-parent adoptions are examined. Presents the Boston foster care case of David Jean and Donald Babets and illustrates many of the issues that can arise, though qualification for foster parenting and adopting vary from state to state.
Ricketts, W., & Achtenberg, R. (1989). Adoption and foster parenting for lesbians and gay men: Creating new traditions in family. Marriage and Family Review, 14(3/4), 83-118.
Recognizes the increasing interest gay men and lesbian women have in adoption and foster parenting and presents information and encouragement to them in their efforts. Reviews recent examples of adoption and foster parenting case law as a background. Discusses the dilemma of prospective parents remaining secretive about sexual orientation and the subsequent impact this has on child-rearing practices and the family's level of comfort. Argues effectively for openness as an antidote to homophobia and debunks the mythology that such openness is harmful to the children involved. Tackles the issue of foster parenting of gay and lesbian youth by gay and lesbian adults. Discusses the importance of both adoptive parents having legal rights. Generally takes a realistic view of the situation as it is emerging. Provides a list of resources for those interested in pursuing adoption or foster parenting.
Riddle, D. I. (1978). Relating to children: Gays as role models. Journal of Social Issues, 34, 38-58.
One of the earliest articles reviewing the literature relating to sexual identity formation. Children internalize particular traits from a variety of models. Supports the idea of gays as positive models for both heterosexual and gay and lesbian children. Gay men and lesbian women offer alternatives to traditional sex-role models but do not determine same-sex sexual preference in children.
Rivera, R. R. (1987). Legal issues in gay and lesbian parenting. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 199-227). New York: Praeger.
Briefly reviews the status of gay and lesbian individuals in the courts with regard to civil rights. Elucidates the specific climate and norms that generally operate in deciding custody cases as they affect lesbian women and gay men as well as the substantive legal issues involved in gay and lesbian parenting. Also details the types of harm to the child that are often alleged by the party seeking to deny custody to the gay/lesbian parent. A resource on the judicial process one might encounter in custody cases.
Rohrbaugh, J. B. (1989). Choosing children: Psychological issues in lesbian parenting. Women and Therapy, 8(1/2), 51-64.
Discussion of issues for lesbian women who choose to have children after coming out. Discusses issues ranging from planning through pregnancy, birth, and the first 2 years of parenting. The main themes discussed in the article include: redefining lesbian identity to include motherhood, coping with homophobia, dealing with relationships with the lesbian mother's parents, and the effects of lesbian mothering on couples.
Ross, J. L. (1988). Challenging boundaries: An adolescent in a homosexual family. Journal of Family Psychology, 2(2), 227-240.
Reviews issues related to secrecy, "passing," and boundaries within gay/lesbian families. A case study of an adolescent girl and the family's ability to confront the secrets and changes in boundaries is used as a vehicle to present various concepts in the work with gay and lesbian families. The additional stress related to adolescence and its challenges on family structure, boundaries, and family ideology is integrated with the particular stresses facing gay/lesbian families. Examines the need to confront secrecy and outer biases and homophobia in the community and internal homophobia within the gay/lesbian parents themselves, along with the need to develop networks and supports that are not as easily available to gay/lesbian parents. Stresses therapy as advocacy and assisting in establishing the family social support network.
Shernoff, M. J. (1984). Family therapy for lesbian and gay clients. Social Work, July-August, 393-396.
Describes issues and practice methods for social workers working with "homosexual families." Advises both practitioners and educators toward a nonhomophobic, contextual family therapy treatment.
Steckel, A. (1987). Psychosocial development of children of lesbian mothers. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Gay and lesbian parents (pp. 75-85). New York: Praeger.
Reviews the research on the psychological development of children of lesbian women. Biased and traditional perceptions of what makes up a family unit (i.e., the traditional heterosexual nuclear family) have led to viewing other alternative family systems as deviant and responsible for the development of difficulties for children raised in these family units. The fact that there are children raised by lesbian women has raised fears regarding confused sexual identity in children or that they will become lesbian/gay. Notes that initial research on lesbian mothers studied women who had children before they identified themselves as lesbians. Research reviewed reveals that the children of lesbian mothers did not differ significantly from children in more traditional families in their fundamental sexual identity and choice of sex roles. Proposes that an important factor in any child's development is that of there being any second adult who is committed to the child. Sexual orientation of the parent alone is not the only factor that should be used in assessing the family unit. The need to examine other critical variables within context is vital. Suggests further research, particularly longitudinal studies, and the need for research with ethnic and cultural minorities.
Stein, T. S. (1988). Homosexuality and new family forms: Issues in psychotherapy. Psychiatric Annals, 18(1), 12-20.
Reviews the recent literature on new family forms associated with homosexuality and an overview of issues relevant to psychiatry and psychotherapy with these families. Discusses the current knowledge about homosexual families and its use in therapy with such families. Addresses the issues particular to lesbian couples, gay male couples, and families with children. Also discusses the transference and counter transference reactions that may arise when working with these families. These issues are addressed with consideration to the stigmatization and discrimination of gay men and lesbian women in American society.
Steinhorn, A. (1982). Lesbian mothers--the invisible minority: Role of the mental health worker. Women & Therapy, 1(4), 35-48.
Discusses some of the issues lesbian mothers face in the area of economics, child care, socializing, custody, and choices about disclosure of lesbianism to the children. The context of the discussion is primarily with regard to lesbian mothers who conceived their children in previous heterosexual marriages. Encourages mental health providers to educate themselves about the dilemmas encountered by lesbian mothers so they may be supportive.
Uhl, B. A. (1986-87). A new issue in foster parenting--gays. Journal of Family Law, 25, 577-597.
Reviews the actions of the Massachusetts Department of Social Services in revoking placement of foster children with an openly gay couple and the legislature's subsequent action to codify a ban against such placements, noting that a similar process may be followed by other states. Summarizes states' policies on foster care placement with homosexuals. Discusses court actions regarding gay men's and lesbian women's fitness to parent and the constitutional issues involved.
Weekes, R. B., Derdeyn, A. P., & Langman, M. (1975). Two cases of children of homosexuals. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 6, 26-32.
Reports on two cases of children with opposite-sex homosexual parents. Projective testing indicated difficulty with gender role identity. Articles cautions that it is not clear that these difficulties were related to parents' homosexuality and may have been related to the parents' divorce from a heterosexual marriage.
Wolf, D. G. (1984). Lesbian childbirth and woman-controlled conception. In T. Darty & S. Potter (Eds.), Women-identified women (pp. 185-193). Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield Press.
Delineates the growing use of insemination, noninstitutionalized medical practices, and home birth among lesbian feminists in the San Francisco Bay area. Lesbian women are choosing this alternative because it avoids child custody litigation, does not involve intercourse with men, and may serve as a model for other lesbian and single women who want to have children. They prefer community-network-based insemination organized by a feminist facilitator who found gay men to donate sperm for lesbians who want children. Since many lesbian women prefer female children, they use methods of conception that will favor girls. Groups of lesbian women have formed support groups to help the woman and her partner. Parents of lesbian women become more accepting of their daughters with the arrival of grandchildren. The ideal childbirth situation is described as at home with the help of midwives.
Wyers, N. (1987). Homosexuality in the family: Lesbian and gay spouses. Social Work, March/April, 143-148.
Describes how gay and lesbian stepfamilies experience all the issues common to heterosexual stepfamilies in addition to issues that arise from the following: a lack of social approval for lesbian women and gay men, lack of legal recognition and protection for lesbian and gay families, stereotypes and myths about homosexuality that undermine family harmony, fear of losing custody, and the need for some families to maintain secrecy about parental sexual orientation and consequent feelings of isolation, particularly among children. Focuses primarily on the need for secrecy and the isolation children experienced because their families were different. Outlines issues for therapists and guidelines for therapy. Based on clinical observations and references to previous research.