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Lesbian & Gay Parenting
Reviews of Empirical Studies
Generally Related to the Fitness of
Lesbians and Gay Men as Parents
Amato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: An update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 355-370.
The present study updates the P. R. Amato and B. Keith (1991) meta-analysis of children and divorce with a new analysis of 67 studies published in the 1990s. Compared with children with continuously married parents, children with divorced parents continued to score significantly lower on measures of academic achievement, conduct, psychological adjustment, self-concept, and social relations. After controlling for study characteristics, curvilinear trends with respect to decade of publication were present for academic achievement, psychological well-being, self-concept, and social relations. For these outcomes, the gap between children with divorced and married parents decreased during the 1980s and increased again during the 1990s. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2005 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Amato, P. R., & Keith, B. (1991). Parental divorce and the well-being of children: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 26-46.
Meta-analysis involved 92 studies that compared children living in divorced single-parent families with children living in continuously intact families on measures of well-being. Children of divorce scored lower than children in intact families across a variety of outcomes, with the median effect size being 14 of a standard deviation. For some outcomes, methodologically sophisticated studies yielded weaker effect sizes than did other studies. In addition, for some outcomes, more recent studies yielded weaker effect sizes than did studies carried out during earlier decades. Some support was found for theoretical perspectives emphasizing parental absence and economic disadvantage, but the most consistent support was found for a family conflict perspective. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2005 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Cochran, S. D. (2001). Emerging issues in research on lesbians' and gay men's mental health: Does sexual orientation really matter? American Psychologist, 56, 931-947.
Theoretical writings and research suggest that the onset, course, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders among lesbians and gay men differ in important ways from those of other individuals. Recent improvements in studies of sexual orientation and mental health morbidity have enabled researchers to find some elevated risk for stress-sensitive disorders that is generally attributed to the harmful effects of antihomosexual bias. Lesbians and gay men who seek mental health services must find culturally competent care within systems that may not fully address their concerns. The affirmative therapies offer a model for intervention, but their efficacy and effectiveness need to be empirically documented. Although methodological obstacles are substantial, failure to consider research questions in this domain overlooks the welfare of individuals who may represent a sizable minority of those accessing mental health services annually. (Reprinted with permission of the American Psychological Association, Inc. Copyright © 2001. All rights reserved.) Return to top
Finkelhor, D., & Russell, D. (1984). Women as perpetrators: Review of the evidence. In D. Finkelhor (Ed.), Child sexual abuse: New theory and research (pp. 171-187). New York: Free Press.
No abstract available.
Freedman, M. (1971). Homosexuality and psychological functioning. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
No abstract available.
Gillis, J. R. (1998). Cultural heterosexism and the family. In C. J. Patterson & A. R. D'Augelli (Eds.), Lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities in the family: Psychological perspectives (pp. 249-269). New York: Oxford University Press.
(From the chapter) This chapter cites modern examples of cultural heterosexism, reviews some longitudinal data suggesting changes in attitudes toward lesbian, bisexual, and gay people, and offers some direction for research aimed at reducing cultural heterosexism. Employment rights, beliefs about the morality, legality, and cause of homosexuality are also included. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Gonsiorek, J. (1991). The empirical basis for the demise of the illness model of homosexuality. In J. C. Gonsiorek & J. D. Weinrich (Eds.), Homosexuality: Research implications for public policy (pp. 115-136). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
(From the chapter) How can one understand the pathology or nonpathology of homosexuality if one does believe in the reasonableness of psychiatric diagnosis? My perspective is that psychiatric diagnosis is legitimate, but its application to homosexuality is erroneous and invalid because there is no empirical justification for it. The diagnosis of homosexuality as an illness is bad science. Therefore, whether one accepts or rejects the plausibility of the diagnostic enterprise in psychiatry, there is no basis for viewing homosexuality as a disease or as indicative of psychological disturbance. It is my conclusion that the issue of whether homosexuality per se is a sign of psychopathology, psychological maladjustment, or disturbance has been answered, and the answer is that it is not. The studies reviewed and the findings in this chapter ought to be the touchstone of further theory and research in the study of homosexuality, because they represent the most carefully designed, reliable, valid, and objective measures of adjustment in the armamentarium of the behavioral sciences. Although it is clear that homosexuality is not in and of itself related to psychopathology, there are persistent suggestions that the particular stresses endured by gay men and lesbians, especially in adolescence and young adulthood, may cause an upsurge in attempted suicide and perhaps chemical abuse, perhaps temporary or perhaps in a segment of homosexuals. They do not suggest the inherent psychopathology of homosexuality; rather they suggest additional especially stressful developmental events in the lives of some gay men and lesbians that require theoretical explication. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.) Return to top
Hart, M., Roback, H., Tittler, B., Weitz, L., Walston, B., & McKee, E. (1978). Psychological adjustment of nonpatient homosexuals: Critical review of the research literature. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 39, 604-608.
Reviews research studies comparing adjustment levels of nonpatient homosexuals and heterosexuals. The paper focuses on (a) methodological problems in research on homosexuality; (b) studies comparing adjustment levels of male homosexuals and male heterosexuals, effeminate and noneffeminate male homosexuals, and female homosexuals and female heterosexuals; (c) the relationship between degree of homosexuality and adjustment; (d) homosexual subculture; and (e) the relationship between homosexuality and psychopathology. It is concluded that findings to date have not demonstrated that the homosexual individuals are any less psychologically adjusted than their heterosexual counterparts. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Herek, G. M. (1995). Psychological heterosexism in the United States. In A. R. D'Augelli & C. J. Patterson (Eds.), Lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities over the lifespan: Psychological perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.
(From the chapter) uses social science theory and empirical research to describe and explain psychological heterosexism in the US today / addresses the attitudinal and belief components of psychological heterosexism, with special attention to cognitive and motivational processes / behavioral aspects of psychological heterosexism-specifically, acts of violence against lesbians and gay men-are discussed / the consequences of psychological heterosexism are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Herek, G. M. (1998). Bad science in the service of stigma: A critique of the Cameron group's survey studies. In G. M. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. (pp. 223-255). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Discusses the work by psychologist Paul Cameron and his research group, which has argued that homosexuals threaten public health, social order, and the well-being of children. This chapter critically reviews the principal source of data for the Cameron group's publications and identifies six serious errors in their sampling techniques, survey methodology, and interpretation of results. This chapter also uses objective indicators to show that the Cameron group's survey results have had no discernible impact on scientific research. They have been published in journals with low levels of professional prestige and scientific impact, and have been cited in few other research articles, most of which criticized their methodology. It is concluded that the Cameron group's surveys are an example of bad science that has been used to perpetuate the stigma historically associated with homosexuality. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2005 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.) Return to top
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674-697.
In this article the author reviews research evidence on the prevalence of mental disorders in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (LGBs) and shows, using meta-analyses, that LGBs have a higher prevalence of mental disorders than heterosexuals. The author offers a conceptual framework for understanding this excess in prevalence of disorder in terms of minority stress-explaining that stigma, prejudice, and discrimination create a hostile and stressful social environment that causes mental health problems. The model describes stress processes, including the experience of prejudice events, expectations of rejection, hiding and concealing, internalized homophobia, and ameliorative coping processes. This conceptual framework is the basis for the review of research evidence, suggestions for future research directions, and exploration of public policy implications. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2005 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Money, J., & Ehrhardt, A. A. (1972). Man and woman, boy and girl: The differentiation and dimorphism of gender identity from conception to maturity. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Presents human and animal experimental and clinical findings from genetics, endocrinology, neurosurgery, psychology, and anthropology on sexual differentiation. In addition to physical abnormalities due to genetic and hormonal influences, environmental influences on the differentiation of gender identity and on erotic behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2004 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Reiss, B. F. (1980). Psychological tests in homosexuality. In J. Marmor (Ed.), Homosexual behavior: A modern reappraisal (pp. 296-311). New York: Basic Books.
No abstract available.
Sarafino, E. P. (1979). An estimate of nationwide incidence of sexual offenses against children. Child Welfare, 58, 127-134.
Complete data are lacking for accurately estimating sexual offenses against children on a national scale, but projections from statistics available indicate the magnitude of the social problem. (Reprinted with permission of the Child Welfare League of America. Copyright © 1979. All rights reserved.)
Stein, T. S. (1993). Overview of new developments in understanding homosexuality. Review of Psychiatry, 12, 9-40.
No abstract available.
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