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Lesbian & Gay Parenting
Reviews of Empirical Studies
Specifically Related to Lesbian &
Gay Parents and Their Children
Allen, K. R., & Demo, D. H. (1995). The families of lesbians and gay men: A new frontier in family research. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 57, 111-127.
Examined the extent to which the family relations of lesbians and gay men are integrated into the family literature by reviewing over 8,000 articles published between 1980 and 1993 in nine journals that publish family research. The review shows that research on lesbian and gay families is quite limited, and that, where these families have been studied, they have been problematized and their diversity has been overlooked. The authors describe and define lesbian and gay families, illustrating their diversity and challenging the neglect of this population in family studies. The authors direct researchers' attention toward a social ecologies model that incorporates the dynamics of family relationships. Theoretical implications of studying lesbian and gay families are discussed, and research directions to improve knowledge of these families and families in general are proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Allen, M., & Burrell, N. (1996). Comparing the impact of homosexual and heterosexual parents on children: Meta-analysis of existing research. Journal of Homosexuality, 32, 19-35.
Courts determine custody and visitation on the basis of the "best interests of the child." Current judicial rulings in some jurisdictions reflect a bias against awarding custody or granting visitation rights to homosexual parents, favoring the heterosexual parent or heterosexual relative of the child(ren). Should the sexual orientation of the parent play a part in the determination of custody or visitation in order to protect the child? This meta-analysis summarizes the available quantitative literature comparing the impact of heterosexual and homosexual parents, using a variety of measures, on the child(ren). The analyses examine parenting practices, the emotional well-being of the child, and the sexual orientation of the child. The results demonstrate no differences on any measures between the heterosexual and homosexual parents regarding parenting styles, emotional adjustment, and sexual orientation of the child(ren). In other words, the data fail to support the continuation of a bias against homosexual parents by any court. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Anderssen, N., Amlie, C., & Ytteroy, E. A. (2002). Outcomes for children with lesbian or gay parents: A review of studies from 1978 to 2000. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 43, 335-351.
Reviewed 23 empirical studies published between 1978 and 2000 on nonclinical children raised by lesbian mothers or gay fathers (one Belgian/Dutch, one Danish, three British, and 18 North American). Twenty studies reported on offspring of lesbian mothers, and three on offspring of gay fathers. The studies encompassed a total of 615 offspring (age range 1.5-44 yrs.) of lesbian mothers or gay fathers and 387 controls, who were assessed by psychological tests, questionnaires, or interviews. Seven types of outcomes were found to be typical: emotional functioning, sexual preference, stigmatization, gender role behavior, behavioral adjustment, gender identity, and cognitive functioning. Children raised by lesbian mothers or gay fathers did not systematically differ from other children on any of the outcomes. The studies indicate that children raised by lesbian women do not experience adverse outcomes compared with other children. The same holds for children raised by gay men, but more studies should be done. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.) Return to top
Armesto, J. C. (2002). Developmental and contextual factors that influence gay fathers' parental competence: A review of the literature. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 3, 67-78.
This article reviews the existing literature on gay parenting using two theoretical frameworks: developmental and ecological. Findings suggest that the normal stressors of parenting are compounded for gay men because of their membership in a socially stigmatized group. Specifically, competent parenting in gay men appears to be influenced by the ability to come to terms with a homosexual identity and negotiate the ongoing stress associated with living in a homophobic and heterosexist society. The author discusses the theoretical implications of these findings and suggests areas for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Belcastro, P. A., Gramlich, T., Nicholson, T., Price, J., & Wilson, R. (1993). A review of data-based studies addressing the effects of homosexual parenting on children's sexual and social functioning. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage, 20, 105-122.
Summarizes the results of a computer and manual search of the published literature focused on children raised in gay and lesbian households. Studies were selected on the basis of the following criteria: data-based, post-1975 publications; independent variable/homosexual parent; and dependent variable/some aspect of the child's sexual or social functioning. Includes 14 studies that met the criteria. Concludes that the published research database is too weak to support a definitive conclusion that there are no significant differences in children raised by lesbian mothers versus those raised by heterosexual mothers. (Copyright © 1995 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Bozett, F. W. (1989). Gay fathers: A review of the literature. In F. W. Bozett (Ed.), Homosexuality and the family (pp. 137-162). New York: Harrington Park Press.
Reviews the literature on gay fathers, including historical perspectives and statistical data. Studies of gay fathers and other groups, such as lesbian mothers and nongay fathers, are compared. While the paucity of literature and limitations of the research prevent definitive conclusions, a list of tentative generalizations is proposed. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2004 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Brewaeys, A., & Van Hall, E. V. (1997). Lesbian motherhood: The impact on child development and family functioning. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynecology, 18, 1-16.
No abstract available.
Gottman, J. S. (1990). Children of gay and lesbian parents. In F. W. Bozett & M. B. Sussman (Eds.), Homosexuality and family relations (pp. 177-196). New York: Harrington Park Press.
Reviews research literature on children of homosexual (HS) parents, including comparisons with children of heterosexual parents. Children of HS parents did not appear deviant in gender identity, sexual orientation, or social adjustment. Issues that emerged during their upbringing related more to society's rejection of homosexuality than to poor parent-child relationships. Most social adjustment problems occurred in both groups and were commonly related to family history of divorce. Results are supported by J. Schwartz's (unpublished manuscript) investigation of the above variables in adult-aged daughters in relation to mothers' sexual orientations, with a focus on role modeling theory. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2004 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.) Return to top
Kirkpatrick, M. (1987). Clinical implications of lesbian mother studies. Journal of Homosexuality, 13, 201-211.
Studies have shown similarities between lesbian mothers and divorced heterosexual mothers in marital history, pregnancy history, child-rearing attitudes, and life-style. Motherhood was the most salient factor in both groups' identity. Lesbian mothers had more congenial relations with ex-spouses and included men more regularly in their children's lives. Coupled lesbians had greater economic and emotional resources and provided children with a richer family life than did mothers of either group living alone with children. Children benefited from group discussions about changes in their lives and in their mothers' sexual orientation. Case illustrations are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Kleber, D. J., Howell, R. J., & Tibbits-Kleber, A. L. (1986). The impact of parental homosexuality in child custody cases: A review of the literature. Bulletin of the American Academy of Psychiatry and Law, 14, 81-87.
Reviews the literature on the impact of parental homosexuality in child custody cases. As a result of the relatively high rate of divorce in the United States and the increasing awareness that many parents (an estimated 1.5 million) are homosexual, the courts and divorce mediators have become actively involved in child custody placement decisions involving homosexual parents. While custody decisions have tended to reflect stereotyped beliefs or fears concerning the detrimental effects of homosexual parenting practices on child development, the research literature provides no evidence substantiating these fears. Several specific custody issues are discussed as well as social factors relevant to lesbian motherhood. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Parks, C. A. (1998). Lesbian parenthood: A review of the literature. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 376-389.
Reviews the findings of lesbian family research published between 1980 and 1996. The research describes characteristics of lesbian families and challenges faced by these families in the context of heterosexist and homophobic societal attitudes. The research reveals lesbian parents and their children to be healthy, secure, and quite effective in negotiating the many challenges that accompany their stigmatized and minority status. Lesbian couples are confronted by an environment that disavows their unions, challenges their right and fitness to parent, and denies them basic civil and legal protections to individual and family security. Yet, they have succeeded in creating nurturing, egalitarian families in which they are bearing and raising well-functioning, well-adjusted, and socially tolerant children. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.) Return to top
Patterson, C. J. (1992). Children of lesbian and gay parents. Child Development, 63, 1025 -1042.
Reviews research on the personal and social development of children of gay or lesbian parents (CGLP). Beginning with estimates of the numbers of such children, sociocultural, theoretical, and legal reasons for attention to their development are then outlined. In this context, studies on sexual identity, personal development, and social relationships among these children are reviewed. Evidence does not show that the development of CGLP is compromised significantly relative to that among children of heterosexual parents in comparable situations. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Patterson, C. J. (1995b). Lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and their children. In A. R. D'Augelli & C. J. Patterson, (Eds.), Lesbian, gay and bisexual identities over the lifespan: Psychological perspectives (pp. 262-290). New York: Oxford University Press.
(From the chapter) considers some of the issues and perspectives relevant to research on lesbian and gay families with children / [presents] an overview of research on lesbian and gay parents, and . . . a review of research on children of lesbian and gay parents identifies some of the sources of diversity within lesbian and gay parenting communities / present research on those who became parents in the context of heterosexual relationships, before coming out as lesbian or gay / describe studies of lesbians who became parents after coming out [present] research on children born in the context of heterosexual relationships . . . followed by a description of new work with children born to or adopted by lesbian and gay parents. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Patterson, C. J. (1997). Children of lesbian and gay parents. In T. Ollendick & R. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, Volume 19 (pp. 235-282). New York: Plenum Press.
Describes recent research on the personal and social development of children of lesbian and gay parents. Beginning with estimates of the numbers of such children, the author then outlines sociocultural, theoretical, and legal reasons that justify attention to their development. Research evidence is also presented on the sexual identity, personal development, and social relationships among these children, and on the mediating effects of divorce and adoption vs. biological birth. The author's own Bay Area Families Study, which examined the familial and individual adjustment of 4- to 9-year-old children born to versus adopted by lesbian mothers, is described. Results of this study show normal levels of maternal adjustment and personal esteem as well as normal social and personal development among children with lesbian mothers. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.) Return to top
Patterson, C. J. (1998). Family lives of children with lesbian mothers. In C. J. Patterson & A. R. D'Augelli (Eds.), Lesbian, gay and bisexual identities in families: Psychological perspectives (pp. 154-176). New York: Oxford University Press.
In the present chapter, the focus will be children who were born after their mothers came out as lesbians. Research with these families is as yet quite new, but a number of findings similar to those reported for families of divorced lesbian mothers have been reported. The author presents research on lesbian mothers and considers findings about the psychosocial development and adjustment of children born to or adopted early in life by lesbian mothers. After discussing research findings to date, the author suggests some directions for further study and examines the existing research for evidence with regard to one issue of particular interest-the extent to which biological linkages are related to the structure of family lives in the families of the lesbian baby boom. The chapter concludes with a general discussion of what has been learned and what directions seem promising for further work. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.).
Patterson, C. J. (2000). Family relationships of lesbians and gay men. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1052- 1069.
Presents an overview of research on the family lives of lesbians and gay men. It is noted that the family lives of lesbian and gay people have been a source of controversy during the past decade. Despite prejudice and discrimination, lesbians and gay men have often succeeded in creating and sustaining family relationships. Research on same-gender couple relationships, parent-child relationships, and other family relationships are reviewed here. In general, the picture of lesbian and gay relationships emerging from this body of work is one of positive adjustment, even in the face of stressful conditions. Research is also beginning to address questions about individual differences among the family relationships of lesbians and gay men. It is concluded that future work in this area has the potential to affect lesbian and gay lives, influence developmental and family theory, and inform public policies. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Patterson, C. J. (2004). Gay fathers. In M. E. Lamb (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (4th ed.). New York: John Wiley.
No abstract available.
Stacey, J., & Biblarz, T. J. (2001). (How) Does sexual orientation of parents matter? American Sociological Review, 65, 159-183.
Opponents of lesbian and gay parental rights claim that children with lesbigay parents are at higher risk for a variety of negative outcomes. Yet most research in psychology concludes that there are no differences in developmental outcomes between children raised by lesbigay parents and those raised by heterosexual parents. This analysis challenges this defensive conceptual framework and analyzes how heterosexism has hampered intellectual progress in the field. The authors discuss limitations in the definitions, samples, and analyses of the studies to date. Next they explore findings from 21 studies and demonstrate that researchers frequently downplay findings indicating differences regarding children's gender and sexual preferences and behavior that could stimulate important theoretical questions. A less defensive, more sociologically informed analytic framework is proposed for investigating these issues. The framework focuses on (1) whether selection effects produced by homophobia account for associations between parental sexual orientations and child outcomes; (2) the role of parental gender vis-à-vis sexual orientation in influencing children's gender development; and (3) the relationship between parental sexual orientations and children's sexual preferences and behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Tasker, F. (1999). Children in lesbian-led families-A review. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 4, 153-166.
Research on non-clinical samples of children raised in lesbian-led families formed after parental divorce, together with studies of children raised in families planned by a single lesbian mother or lesbian couple, suggest that growing up in a lesbian-led family does not have negative effects on key developmental outcomes. In many ways family life for children growing up in lesbian-led families is similar to that experienced by children in heterosexual families. In other respects there are important distinctions, such as different types of family forms and the impact of social stigma on the family, that may influence how clinicians approach therapeutic work with children in lesbian mother families. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
Victor, S. B., & Fish, M. C. (1995). Lesbian mothers and their children: A review for school psychologists. School Psychology Review, 24, 456-479.
Reviews 56 studies (published from 1971 to 1994) on lesbian mothers and their children. Three main family patterns and some common misconceptions about these families are addressed. Research suggests there are no differences between children of lesbians and children of heterosexuals with regard to their emotional health, interpersonal relationships, sexual orientation, or gender development. Psychological adjustment and parenting skills were not significantly different for lesbian and heterosexual mothers. Implications for school psychology practice and training are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record. Copyright © 2002 by the American Psychological Association. All rights reserved.)
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