Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training,
Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists
American Psychological Association
Approved as APA Policy by the APA Council of Representatives, August, 2002
Guideline #2: Psychologists are encouraged to recognize the importance of
multicultural sensitivity/responsiveness, knowledge, and understanding about
ethnically and racially different individuals.
As noted in Guideline #1, membership in one group helps to shape perceptions of
not only one's own group, but also other groups. The link between those perceptions and
attitudes are loyalty to and valuing of one's own group, and devaluing the other group.
The Minority Identity Development model (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1998) is one such
example applying to ethnic/racial minority individuals but also to others who have
experienced historical oppression and marginalization. The devaluing of the other group
occurs in a variety of ways, including the "ultimate attributional error" (Pettigrew, 1979),
the tendency to attribute positive behaviors to internal traits within one's own group, but
negative behaviors to the internal traits of the out group (although Gilbert, 1998, suggests
that the ultimate attribute error may be culturally specific to individually oriented
cultures, such as the United States). In the United States, then, the result may be positive,
such as ensuring greater cooperation within one's group, or negative, such development
of prejudice and stereotyping of other groups. Decades of research and multiple theories
have been developed to reduce prejudice of other groups, most developing around the
central premise that greater knowledge of, and contact with, the other groups will result
in greater intercultural communication and less prejudice and stereotyping (Brewer &
Miller, 1998; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000). Brewer and Miller delineate the factors that
have been found to be successful in facilitating prejudice reduction through contact
among groups: social and institutional support, sufficient frequency and duration for
relationships to occur, equal status among participants, and cooperation. It appears, as discussed in Guideline #1, that attention to out–group stereotyping reduces prejudice
(Reynolds & Oakes, 2000), as does overt training to reduce stereotyping (Kawakami,
Dovidio, Moll, Hermsen, & Russin, 2000).
It is within this framework that psychologists are urged to gain a better
understanding and appreciation of the worldview and perspectives of those racially and
ethnically different from themselves. Psychologists are also encouraged to understand
the stigmatizing aspects of being a member of a culturally devalued "other group."
(Crocker et al., 1998; Major et al., in press). This includes experience, sometimes daily,
with overt experiences of prejudice and discrimination, awareness of the negative value
of one's own group in the cultural hierarchy, the threat of one's behavior being found
consistent with a racial/ethnic stereotype (stereotype threat), and the uncertainty (e.g., due
to prejudice or individual behavior) of the attribution of the stigmatizing comments and
outcomes.
Understanding a client's or student's or research participant's worldview,
including the effect of being in a stigmatized group, helps to understand his/her
perspectives and behaviors. Racial and ethnic heritage, worldview, and life experiences
as a result of this identity may affect such factors as the ways students present themselves
in class, their learning style, their willingness to seek, and trust the advice and
consultation from faculty, their ability and interest in working with others on class
projects (Neville & Mobley, 2001). In the clinical realm, worldview and life experiences
may affect how clients present symptoms to therapists, the meaning that illness has in
their lives, motivation and willingness to seek treatment, social support networks, and
perseverance in treatment (Anderson, 1995; USDHSS, 2000, 2001). People of Color are underrepresented in mental health services, in large part, because they are less likely to
seek services (Kessler et al., 1996; Zhang, Snowden, & Sue, 1998). The Surgeon
General's report on culture and mental health (2001) strongly suggests, "cultural
misunderstanding or communication problems between clients and therapists may
prevent minority group members from using services and receiving appropriate care" (p.
42). One way to address this problem is for psychologists to gain greater knowledge and
understanding of the cultural practices of clients.
Psychologists are encouraged to increase their knowledge of the multicultural
bases of general psychological theories and information from a variety of cultures and
cultural/racial perspectives and theories, such as Mestizo psychology (Ramirez, 1998),
psychology of Nigrescence (Cross, 1978; Helms, 1990; Parham, 1989, 2001; Vandiver,
Fhagen–Smith, Cokley, Cross, & Worrell, 2001; Worrell, Cross, & Vandiver, 2001),
Latino/Hispanic frameworks (Padilla, 1995; Ruiz, 1990; Santiago–Rivera et al., 2002)
Native American models (Cameron, in press; LaFromboise & Jackson, 1996),
biracial/multiracial models (Wehrly et al., 1999; Root, 1992) specific to racial/ethnic
minority groups in the United States. In addition, psychologists are encouraged to
become knowledgeable about how history has been different for the major U.S. cultural
groups. Past experiences in relation to the dominant culture including slavery, Asian
concentration camps, the American Indian holocaust, and the colonization of the major
Latino groups on their previous Southwest homelands contribute to some of the
sociopolitical dynamics, influencing worldview. Psychologists may also become
knowledgeable about the psychological issues and gender related concerns related to immigration and refugee status (Cienfuegos & Moneli, 1983; Comas–D’az & Jansen,
1995; Espin, 1997, 1999; Fullilove, 1996).
As noted in Guideline #1, one of the premises underlying these Guidelines is that
all interpersonal interactions occur within a multicultural context. To enhance sensitivity
and understanding further, psychologists are encouraged to become knowledgeable about
federal legislation including the Civil Rights Act, Affirmative Action, and Equal
Employment Opportunity (EEO) that were enacted to protect groups marginalized due to
ethnicity, race, national origin, religion, age, and gender (Crosby & Cordova, 1996).
Concomitantly, psychologists are encouraged to understand the impact of the dismantling
of Affirmative Action and anti–bilingual education legislation on the lives of ethnic and
racial minority groups (Fine, Weis, Powell, & Wong, 1997; Glasser, 1988).
Built on variations of the social categorization models described in Guideline #1
ethnic and racial identity models such as the Minority Identity Model (Atkinson et al.,
1998) noted earlier have also been developed for specific racial/ethnic minority groups
(Cross, 1978; Helms, 1990; Parham, 1989, 2001; Ruiz, 1990; Vandiver et al., 2001;
Worrell et al., 2001). These models propose that members of racial/ethnic minority
groups initially value the other group (dominant culture) and devalue their own culture,
move to valuing their own group and devalue the dominant culture, and integrate a value
for both groups in a final stage. These models are key constructs in the cross cultural
domain, and psychologists are encouraged to understand how the individual's ethnic and
racial identity status and development affects beliefs, emotions, behavior and interaction
styles (Brewer & Brown, 1998; Fiske et al., 1998; Hays, 1995; Helms & Cook, 1999).
This information will help psychologists to communicate more effectively with clients, peers, students, research participants, and organizations and to understand their coping
responses (Crocker et al., 1998; Major et al., in press; Swim & Mallet, 2002).
Psychologists are encouraged to become knowledgeable about ethnic and racial identity
research including research on Asian, Black, White, Mexican, Mestizo, minority, Native
American, and biracial identity models (Atkinson et al., 1998; Cross, 1991; Fouad &
Brown, 2000; Helms, 1990; Hong & Ham, 2001; Phinney, 1991; Ramirez, 1998; Root,
1992; Ruiz, 1990; Sodowsky, Kuo–Jackson, & Loya, 1997; & Wehrly et al., 1999).
Additionally, psychologists may also learn about other theories of identity development
that are not stage models, as well as other models that demonstrate the
multidimensionality of individual identity across different historical contexts (Santiago–
Rivera et al., 2000; Oetting & Beauvais, 1990–1991; Oyserman, Gant, & Ager, 1995;
Robinson & Howard–Hamilton, 2000; Root, 1999; Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, &
Chavous, 1998; Thompson & Carter, 1997).
