Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists

American Psychological Association

Approved as APA Policy by the APA Council of Representatives, August, 2002

Education

Guideline #3: As educators, psychologists are encouraged to employ the constructs of multiculturalism and diversity in psychological education.

Psychology has historically focused on biological determinants of behavior versus historical and sociopolitical forces (Bronstein & Quiana, 1988). Some have expressed fear of creating stereotypes by addressing cultural differences, discussed earlier as the color–blind approach (Ridley, 1995), fear of categorization processes such as cognitive and behavioral confirmation biases (Wolsko et al., 2000) and a discomfort with discussing difficult and uncomfortable subjects (Abreu, 2001). Sue and Sue (1999) describe another historical concern Đethnocentric monoculturalism Đ which is characterized, in part, by a belief in the superiority of one's own group and inferiority of another's group and the use of power to impose one's values on the less–powerful group. Finally, in part, the omission of culture in psychology has stemmed from a belief that culture and multiculturalism are not legitimate areas of study (Bronstein & Quiana, 1988; Betancourt & Lopez, 1993; Fowers & Richardson, 1996; Hall, 2001). This has been manifested in preventing graduate students from conducting cross–cultural and multicultural research; non–acceptance of manuscripts in this area due to studies with small samples; lack of available measures to assess the effects of multicultural training; and the emphasis on quantitative versus qualitative research (CNPAAEMI, 2000; Sue et al., 1998). These concerns have extended to incorporating a culture–centered approach to education as well. However, scholars and cross–cultural researchers began calling for a revision of psychology education and training to incorporate a more culture–centered perspective in the mid 1980's. In this document, the context of education refers to teaching of psychology at the undergraduate and graduate levels as well as in clinical and research supervision, advisement and mentoring, and continuing post–graduate education.

In the past two decades, studies have documented an increase in programs that have incorporated an emphasis on cultural diversity into the curriculum in graduate programs as well as in internship settings (Constantine, Ladany, Inman, & Ponterotto, 1996; Lee et al., 1999; Ponterotto, 1997; Quintana & Bernal, 1995; Rogers, Hoffman, & Wade, 1998). This infusion is based both on the premise that multicultural and culturespecific knowledge in education is effective in producing more competent researchers, educators, therapists, and other applied practitioners, as well as adhering to accreditation guidelines to incorporate diversity into the curriculum.

As discussed in Guideline #1, all interactions are cross–cultural and, by extension, all classroom interactions are multicultural. Thus, these Guidelines apply to teaching about multiculturalism as well as to the practice of teaching in general. Multicultural education has been found to promote student self–awareness and to increase their therapeutic competence (Brown, Parham, & Yonker, 1996; D'Andrea, Daniels, & Heck, 1991; Pope–Davis & Ottavi, 1994). Multicultural and culture–specific education may also help to counteract stereotyping and automatic social processes leading to prejudice against ethnic minority individuals (Abreu, 2001; Steele, 1997).

The benefits of diversity as well as the teaching from culture–centered perspectives have been reported by a variety of researchers and organizations (American Council on Education & American Association of University Professors, 2000; Chang, Witt, Jones, & Hakuta, 2000). It has been found that individual, institutional, and societal benefits result from a culture–centered perspective. At the individual level, benefits include an enhanced commitment to work toward racial understanding. Institutional advantages may be found for employers, who have a workforce with greater preparation in cross–cultural understanding. Societal benefits may be located, for example, in institutions of higher education, where scholars conduct research addressing issues of gender, race, and ethnicity as well as research on affirmative action in the workplace (American Council on Education & American Association of University Professors, 2000).

Other forces of change influencing attention to culture in education come from accrediting bodies. For example, the California Postsecondary Education Commission (1992, cited in Grieger & Toliver, 2001) mandated that all postsecondary institutions in

California bear responsibility for creating an equitable environment for all students, and prepare them to function in a multicultural setting. As previously noted, the APA Committee on Accreditation (COA), which accredits training programs in counseling, clinical, and school psychology, now requires programs to document the ways that they have both included education about diversity for students, and have attended to creating an ethnically/racially diverse faculty and student body (APA, 2002).

During the past 10–15 years, more reports and perspectives about best practices and guidelines for cross culture–centered education and training have emerged. Psychologists in the role of educators in multicultural training have reported on the excitement of teaching, conducting research, and providing supervision (Arredondo, 1985; Constantine, 1997; Grieger & Toliver, 2001; Kiselica, 1998; Rooney, Flores, & Mercier, 1998; Stone, 1997). At the same time, they acknowledge that, by focusing on ethnic/racial issues, approaches, literature, projects, and so forth, they often encounter resistance from students and professional colleagues (Ponterotto, 1998; Sue et al., 1998). Unlike other psychology coursework, multicultural coursework moves into what is viewed as more personal domains beyond listening skills and personality theories. Culture–centered faculty introduce material many students have never thought about, may not care about, and may have reluctance to engage in, even if the course work is required (Jackson, 1999). Thus the challenges for faculty, advisors, and supervisors require multiple skills to ensure a safe learning environment, an ability to know the course content, and to manage emotions that emerge (Abreu, 2001; American Council on Education & American Association of University Professors, 2000; Chang et al., 2000; Lenington–Lara, 1999).

Psychologists as educators strive to become knowledgeable about different learning models and approaches to teaching from multiple cultural perspectives. In order to go beyond a single multicultural counseling course or to mention in passing that the racial/ethnic diversity is increasing in the United States, it is suggested that educators include statements of philosophy and principles in course syllabi that guide the multicultural educational focus (Leach & Carlton, 1997). Psychologists are encouraged to review philosophical models that influence multicultural training. These include racebased models (Carter, 1995; Helms, 1990); theories regarding oppression (Atkinson, Morten, & Sue, 1998; Freire, 1970; Katz, 1985); Multicultural Counseling and Therapy (MCT) (Sue et al., 1996); Multicultural Facets of Cultural Competence (Sue, 2001); common factors within psychotherapy and healing (Fischer, Jome, & Atkinson, 1998; Frank & Frank, 1998) and multicultural competency–based models (Arredondo & Arciniega, 2001; Arredondo et al., 1996; Middleton, Rollins, & Harley, 1999). In addition, the research on intergroup biases and categorization theories described in Guidelines #1 and #2 suggest that optimal intergroup contact is predicted by equal status among those interacting (e.g., teacher and students), cooperation as opposed to competition, perspective taking, and empathy (Finlay & Stephan, 2000; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000; Galinsky & Moskowitz, 2000; Hewstone et al., 2002; Pettigrew, 1998). These models and approaches, then, may be used to encompass didactic courses across the curriculum (e.g., learning about career theories and practices related to various cultural groups) as well as assessment, organizational behavior, clinical practice and supervision, and research approaches.

Literature based on tried and effective approaches is available to assist psychologists in adapting and creating new curricula, infusing multicultural and culturespecific concepts into research, assessment and clinical course work, and in developing more culturally sensitive and inclusive learning environments for faculty, staff, and students alike (Arredondo, 1999; Arredondo & Arciniega, 2001; Lee, 1999; Evans & Larabee, 2002; Manese, Wu, & Nepomuceno, 2001; Pope–Davis & Coleman, 1997; Ridley et al., 1997; Sue, 1997). Psychologists as educators are encouraged to consider these approaches when designing culture–centered curriculum. Rather than attempt to cover culture–specific and multicultural material in one course, psychologists are encouraged to consider ways to make the multicultural focus thematic to the educational program.

It was previously noted that resistance to multicultural coursework and to the assigned Faculty of Color, who are often charged with teaching a single course on multicultural issues or practices, is not uncommon (Abreu, 2001; Jackson, 1999; Mio & Awakuni, 2000). Several studies report on issues of emotions, including resistance, that may be stirred up when a multicultural course is taught or when course content addresses multicultural perspectives. These studies investigated variables such as racial prejudice, individual and collective guilt, and other forms of emotional reactions (Jackson, 1999; Reynolds, 1995; Shanbhag, 1999; Steward et al., 1998). Psychologists as educators may need to anticipate a range of emotional reactions and be prepared to understand and facilitate respectful discussion and disagreement. Accordingly, psychologists may also want to examine a study in which students indicated that the professors' amiability, nonjudgmental demeanor, enthusiasm, self–disclosure, and overall leadership in the class were sources of encouragement and positive modeling (Lenington–Lara, 1999). Findings support the importance of this posture by faculty when teaching about multicultural issues. While this is challenging to maintain, psychologists are encouraged to consider the implications of this study.

Psychologists as educators are encouraged to continue to be knowledgeable about research findings about the effects of multicultural counseling and psychology coursework (Constantine & Yeh, 2001; Holcomb–McCoy & Myers, 1999; Kiselica, 1998; Klausner, 1998; Koeltzow, 2000; Manese et al., 2001; Parker et al, 1998; Ponterotto, 1998; Pope–Davis, Breaux, & Lui, 1997; Salvador, 1998; Sevig & Etzkorn, 2001; Sodowsky, Kuo–Jackson, Richardson, & Corey, 1998) and general undergraduate education (American Council on Education & American Association of University Professors, 2000; Chang et al., 2000).