Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training,
Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists
American Psychological Association
Approved as APA Policy by the APA Council of Representatives, August, 2002
Organizational Change and Policy Development
Guideline #6: Psychologists are encouraged to use organizational change processes to
support culturally informed organizational (policy) development and practices.
Psychology exists in relationship to other disciplines, organizations, and facets of
society. As a dynamic profession, our education prepares us to be change agents,
promulgators of new knowledge through research that informs policies in different
sectors of society, and as organizational leaders in the profession, the private sector,
government agencies, and other work environments. In the application of our skills in a
wide range of organizations and contexts, psychologists are encouraged to become knowledgeable about the possible ways to facilitate culturally informed organizational
development of policies and practices.
This Guideline is designed to inform psychologists about the following: (1) the
contemporary and future contexts that provide motivators for psychologists' proactive
behavior with organizational change processes; (2) perspectives about psychologists in
transition; (3) frameworks and models to facilitate multicultural organizational
development; and (4) examples of processes and practices reflective of psychologists'
leadership in the development of culture–centered organizations. Supporting this
Guideline are contextual data that provide a rationale for positioning multiculturalism as
thematic to structures, functions, and strategic planning within an organization as well as
example of changes in psychology policies and practices.
Changing Context for Psychologists
While the debate about multiculturalism continues within psychology with
varying and mutually exclusive perspectives (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993; Fowers &
Richardson, 1996; Gergen, 2001; Sue, 2001) looking externally not just internally
becomes increasingly necessary. Psychology education, research, and practice today is
driven by multiple societal forces introduced by other disciplines and the consequences of
world–wide events. Cloning, global terrorism, genetic research breakthroughs, the
efficacy of different medications for both health and mental healthcare,world–wide
migration, and environmental climate change are but a few of the external forces
influencing our work and training. In addition, as noted earlier, continuing increases of
ethnic minority and non–English speaking populations in the U.S., the gap between the
richest and the poorest in the United States continues to accelerate; top 10 states for this gap have been identified (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001), the aging and longer living baby
boomers, and changing family patterns have implications for psychology–at–large.
The demographic shifts and implications for education discussed earlier in the
introduction also have implications for employment projections, such as who works,
where they will work, and how their work may change. For example, the demographic
changes noted earlier include a growth in the population between 50–65, the so–called
"aging baby boomer." Ethnic/racial minority elderly account for a significant proportion
of the overall increase in longevity in the United States and their rates of growth are
expected to exceed those of Whites over the next 50 years (Ory et al., 2000). There is a
greater need for psychologists working with the elderly overall, and a need for them to be
able to work with a racially/ethnically diverse population, as well as working with
employers and organizations as they cope with an aging work force.
In another demographic shift, it is projected that 50% of new entrants to the
workforce between 1994 and 2005 will be women of all ethnic groups (Judy & D'Amico,
1997); psychologists will be called upon to help women make work and family choices,
help employers cope with the transitions to the work force, and ideally, help communities
understand and develop resources as more families have both parents working (Haas,
Hwang, & Russell, 2000). As another example, Latinos are the youngest ethnic/racial
group and the fastest growing one as well (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001); they will be
entering schools in greater numbers, as well as representing a greater proportion of the
workforce. Psychologists will likely be called upon to help school systems,
organizations, and communities cope successfully with these transitions. In addition,
U.S. organizations are dealing with global and rapid technology evolution, more global
integration in to the U.S. economy, national and global deregulation, and quick economic
growth in heretofore–underdeveloped nations (Judy & D'Amico, 1997). All of these
examples have implications for psychology, as psychologists will be called upon to
engage with other disciplines and sectors of society, including government agencies, in
attempting to forge new policies and guidelines that promote human development,
knowledge–building, and societal improvement. While these forces will, of necessity,
influence our own work, we are also uniquely trained to help others cope with these
changes. All of these data and forces highlight the necessity of institutional change
particularly for the delivery of health and mental health services (Schlesinger & Gray,
1999) psychology education, and employment practices.
Psychologists in Transition
The changing landscape of psychology is also apparent as we consider
psychologists who have entered political life, psychologists as administrators in
healthcare institutions and employee assistance programs (EAP), as deans and provosts in
higher education, in the CIA (Psychologists in the CIA, 2002), and as consultants to
corporate entities. All of these roles involve psychologists in different types of functions
and systems driven by forces cited in Workforce 2020 and of course involved with people
of different social identities and professions (Judy & D'Amico, 1997).
Examples of changes in policy and practices have also come from within the
profession. In 1993, the Massachusetts state licensing board approved a regulation
change, requiring doctoral coursework and internship experiences with multicultural and
cross–cultural foci (Daniel, 1994). Georgia passed a similar change in 2000. More
recently, the state of New Mexico passed legislation that now allows psychologists to prescribe medication, recognition of our scientific roots. Part of the rationale for change
in prescription privileges was to provide greater access for rural patients and clients with
mental health concerns, which includes a large number of People of Color. When such
policies go into effect, there are challenges and opportunities that ensue for training
programs, internship sites, and institutions that hire psychologists.
Examples of change within APA were cited in the introductory section. In
addition, the organization has sponsored initiatives such as the development of guidelines
to address concerns of women (Fitzgerald & Nutt, 1986) and gay, lesbian, and
transgendered individuals (APA, 2001), creation of guidelines for conducting research
with linguistic minority populations (CPNAAEMI, 2000) and for providing health care
and culture–specific mental health services (APA, 1990; CPNAAEMI, 2002); and
through interdivisional efforts promoted by the Committee on Division/APA Relations
(Arredondo, 2000). The establishment of a number of Divisions with a special interest
focus in the last 15–20 years is also noteworthy. Divisions that have developed to address
health psychology, the study of peace, conflict, and violence, addictions, interests of men,
international psychology, and pediatric psychology are a few examples of psychologists'
organizational change behavior. These organizational outcomes are indicative of
psychologists' responsiveness to societal changes. It is unlikely that new Divisions will
be established for all current and emerging issues. Psychologists are encouraged to
continue to apply learning organization principles. One of the primary principles is to
scan the environment and anticipate trends and changes allowing for a systemic proactive
rather than reactive response.
Frameworks and Models for Multicultural Organizational Development
Psychologists play a variety of roles in a society that is undergoing rapid change,
and are therefore encouraged to familiarize themselves with methods, frameworks and
models for multicultural organizational development (Adler, 1986; Arredondo, 1996;
Cox, 1993; Cox & Finley, 1995; Garcia–Caban, 2001; Sue, 2001). These models, among
others, provide blueprints for planning for organizational change that may lead to cultural
awareness and knowledge and result in a "best practices" approach for culture–centered
organizations. In addition, a culture–centered focus provides processes for weaving
together contextual forces, the mission of the organization, and development of people
that may lead to enhanced and culturally proficient and inclusive systems and practices.
Most of these models or frameworks describe attributes at particular phases or statuses,
and cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes that will promote multicultural
organizational change and growth. For example, Cross, Bazron, Dennis, and Issacs
(1989) have outlined a cultural competence continuum with stages and indicators from
"cultural destructiveness" to "cultural proficiency." Underscoring work in global
businesses, Adler (1986) offers three models: parochial, ethnocentric, and synergistic.
The latter is described as a response to organizational cultural diversity, "In synergistic
organizations members believe that . . . the combination of our ways and their ways
produces the best ways to organize and work" (p. 87).
To assist organizations in clarifying their approach to multiculturalism and
diversity, Thomas and Ely (1996) conceptualize a continuum of philosophical positions
that range from fairness and equity to valuing diversity. Sue (2001) offers another
conceptualization through his multidimensional facets of cultural competence model. He posits cultural competence at individual, professional, organizational, and societal levels.
By bringing in the societal foci, Sue is also addressing issues of social justice and
responsibility, and opportunities for psychologists' change agency.
Based on empirical research, Cox (1993) proposes organizational transformation
based on the interplay of the climate for diversity, individual outcomes, and
organizational effectiveness. His model has three states: monolithic, pluralistic, and
multicultural. Each state is influenced by the interplay between the climate for diversity,
individual (employee) outcomes, and organizational effectiveness on a number of criteria.
Another scientifically informed model outlines a development process with various
stages and tasks that lead to a multicultural and diversity–centered organization
(Arredondo, 1996). Unlike other models, this is not a typology but rather a data–driven
approach to promote organizational change and development through a focus on
multiculturalism and diversity. Among the stages are planning for a diversity initiative, a
self–study, and an evaluation of measurable objectives. This developmental approach has
served as the basis for conducting applied research in more than 50 organizations such as
social and mental health agencies, colleges and universities, and the private sector.
One of the most comprehensive reviews of organizational cultural competence
models, instrumentation, research and focus was prepared by Garcia–Caban (2001). She
identified 19 instruments used to conduct organizational research in a variety of domains
including relational behavioral styles, cultural competence in service delivery, and
psychologists' knowledge, attitude and behavior skills.
Borrowing from the work of organizational change consultants, psychologists can
become knowledgeable about recommendations from learning organization models (Morgan, 1997; Senge, 1990). These advocate for organizations to anticipate
environmental change, "developing an ability to question, challenge and change
operating norms and assumptions" (Morgan, 1997, p. 90), and engage in new planning.
By so doing, psychologists, prepared as change agents, have the opportunity to apply
clinical and research methodology to promote goal–oriented systems change with
measurable outcomes.
Examples of Multicultural Practices within Organizations
Psychologists are encouraged to review examples of multicultural organizational
change that are reported in publications from a variety of sources within APA, as well as
from the American Counseling Association and management journals. These
evolutionary processes of change are both deliberate and systemic (e.g., Arredondo &
D'Andrea, 2000; D'Andrea, Daniels, & Arredondo, 1999; D'Andrea et al., 2001).
Examples from both APA and the American Counseling Association point to behaviors at
the professional organization level with implications for the practice of psychology.
Thematic to these examples is the role of leadership, sustained attention to diversityrelated
objectives, and changes in policy and practices that make the organization
operationalize its mission of inclusiveness and pluralism. Division 17, Counseling
Psychology; Division 35, Society for the Psychology of Women; Division 44, Society for
the Psychological Study for Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Issues; Division 51, Society for
the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity; and Division 42, Psychologists in
Independent Practice all have dedicated slates or positions for an ethnic/racial minority
psychologist on their executive councils or as representatives to the Council of
Representatives. Division 12, Society of Clinical Psychology, has recently voted to have an ethnic minority slate for Council of Representatives when two positions are vacant at
the same time. Additional examples come from Divisions 12, 17, and 35 that have
subcommittees or sections to address ethnic/racial minority objectives. Finally, Division
45, Society for the Psychological Study of Ethnic Minority Issues has added a "diversity"
Member–at–Large position, inviting representation from a member who is not a person of
color (all other positions have traditionally been Persons of Color). These are practices
that operationalize a given Division's mission and objectives to promote multiculturalism
and diversity, and organizational change. By the same token, APA's immediate response
to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and the work of individual psychologists
within their communities are ways that psychologists have responded quickly to a
changing world.
The strategies applied by these Divisions and the organization parallel ones that
have taken place in the employment sector for more than 15 years, and that undoubtedly
will continue. Moreover, psychologists are well suited to be central to these structural
changes as well as likely candidates to implement these new developments. For example,
universities have begun to create positions for campus diversity directors and
ombudspersons. Both roles often require knowledge and skills that are psychological and
well–grounded in the understanding of diversity and multicultural issues. Accrediting
bodies, including the Joint Commission for Accreditation of Hospital Organizations
(JCAHO) and the National Council on Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE)
require that institutions demonstrate how they address diversity. Industries of all types,
from the government, media, sports, recreation, hospitality, hi–tech, and manufacturing
(e.g., aviation, consumer products) have diversity and multiculturalism in their business plans. With the presence of psychologists from different specializations in nontraditional
and other disciplinary contexts (e.g., CIA) as noted previously, knowledge and
understanding of these Guidelines seems very timely.
Psychologists as Change Agents and Policy Planners
The focus on organizational change and policy development in these Guidelines
highlights the multiple opportunities for psychologists, regardless of our specialty
domains, to lead change and influence policy. The Surgeon General's report on gaps in
mental health care for ethnic minorities in the United States is one example (USDHSS,
2000, 2001). Psychologists representing different specializations were involved in the
development of this report, sharing their research and other data that have contributed to
a compelling document. Psychologists are often called upon to provide expert testimony
to legislative bodies, boards of directors, and the courts on issues that involve
ethnic/racial minority individuals and groups. Though it may appear that we are speaking
from our informed voices as psychologists, psychologists' participation in these venues
reflects the potential for policy development and structural organizational change.
Psychologists are encouraged to become familiar with findings from specific
psychology training program self–studies and empirical studies (e.g., Rogers, Hoffman, &
Wade, 1998), that can provide information about how different constituencies (faculty,
students, staff, and community partners) experience psychology training programs.
These experiences may be evaluated on organizational climate criteria: interpersonal
respect and valuing, curriculum, policies and practices, advisement and mentoring,
research methodology flexibility, resource availability and support, rewards and
recognition, community relations, and professional development for faculty and staff.
Practices such as mentoring, promoting cross–racial dialogues, reducing in–group
and out–group behavior, recruitment and selection processes, and the infusion of
multicultural and diversity concepts in traditional psychology education (undergraduate
through continuing education) have been demonstrated to be effective mechanisms for
systems change (Fiske, 1993; Major et al., 1993; Schmader et al., 2001; Thomas &
Gabarro, 1999). The expanding literature from social psychology on stereotype threat
(Steele, 1997), tokenism (Wright & Taylor, 1998), social stigma (Crocker et al., 1998),
the social identity approach (Haslam, 2001), and social cognition (Eccles & Wigfield,
2002) as these relate to organizational diversity can inform objectives and processes of
change. Psychologists are encouraged to become familiar with practices that can be
replicated to different organizational settings thereby leading to multicultural
organizational enhancement and policy development.
Promoting organizational change through multiculturalism and diversity offers
psychologists opportunities to learn about best practices and also view the domain of
multicultural development as an opportunity for personal and professional growth.
Psychological interventions in organizations are not new, but there are various
approaches that can be examined and integrated in to one's leadership within an
educational department, agency, or business.
Traditional and evolutionary perspectives in applied psychology (Colarelli, 1998),
and models of organizational change (Hofstede, 1986; Lewin, 1951; Morgan, 1997) can
guide behavior that allows psychology to bridge with the multiple communities with
which it interacts. Psychologists are encouraged to become familiar with leadership
literature (Greenleaf, 1998; Nanus, 1992) as this offers constructs and descriptions of roles relevant to psychologists in policy planning. In effect, policy development is a
change management process, one that can be informed by the vision, research, and
experiences of psychologists.
