The authors administered an African self-consciousness scale (ASCS) and an Afrocentric activities questionnaire to 219 Black college students to examine the relationship between Black self-consciousness, background experience, and affirmative behaviors. Only a few of the two sets of predictors were significantly related to the ASCS scores. Background factors of parental membership in predominantly Black organizations, exposure to Black studies courses, and prior experiences with racism/racial prejudice significantly predicted ASCS scores. Activity factors of attending Black cultural activities, reading books about Blacks/African culture, and giving aid/assistance to other Blacks during the preceding year predicted ASCS scores. Thus, the racial-cultural orientation of the socialization atmosphere in the home and in the external learning environment may play a major role in the development of African self-consciousness among Black college students.

The author discusses the role of unconscious psychic factors in anti-Semitism. Deeper motives of anti-Semitism proposed by Freud include the jealousy evoked by the claim of the Jews to a special relationship with God, resentment of Jewish aloofness, and hatred of the Christianity with which Judaism is historically connected. Explanations offered by other psychoanalysts include (a) conflict of the ego, represented by the Christians, with the Id, the super-ego, and outer world, all represented by the Jews; and b) scapegoating for the aggression and guilt aroused by the possession of money. The Jews represented moral and intellectual achievements of physically powerless people that were disquieting to the Nazi pagan state and (b) demands of the super-ego for equality, justice, and intellectual freedom that would have defeated Nazi ideologies. Moreover, destruction of the Jews provided a means for Nazism to indirectly attack Christianity. Hitler projected guilt feelings deriving from his incestuous fixations onto the Jews. The concept of incest came to mean intercourse between Jews and Christians, and Hitler's associated dread of syphilis expressed fear of punishment by castration for the incest.

The authors investigated whether White support for the death penalty is associated with racial prejudice, using data from the 1990 General Social Survey (J. A. Davis and T. W. Smith). Independent variables studied included antipathy to Blacks, racial stereotyping, political conservatism, fear of crime, religious attendance, and southern residence. Results indicate that White support for the death penalty is associated with political conservatism, antipathy to Blacks, and racial stereotyping.

The authors investigated the effect of shared beliefs on the reduction of prejudicial attitudes in an interracial contact setting, using 74 White male undergraduates. Ss participated in discussion groups, each including two Black and two White confederates instructed to agree or disagree with the S. Prejudicial attitudes toward Blacks were assessed with a stereotyped attitude scale and a personal perception questionnaire before and after the discussion sessions. It was hypothesized that agreement conditions would result in more positive interpersonal perceptions and greater prejudice reduction than disagreement conditions. Results show that prejudice reduction occurred in both conditions and suggest that group discussion procedures may reduce prejudice in the absence of belief congruity.

The author states that racism operates as a cultural script learned involuntarily from others that outlines how to feel, think, and behave. Several exercises are presented on how to change culturally sanctioned messages that reinforce racism by fostering supremist attitudes among Whites or dysfunctional scripts among Blacks. To develop and maintain a pluralistic society in which similarities and differences among people are appreciated, it is necessary to offer new messages regarding others of differing ethnic backgrounds. Recognition of cultural scripts related to racism provides a means of changing systematic power imbalances and improving the acceptance of others' or one's own cultural heritage.

The authors examine the disappearing African-American male (AAM), substance abuse and suicide, education, economics, employment issues, crime and violence, discrimination, and family relations of the AAM. The reasons AAMs are disappearing include their shorter life expectancy (65 years) and their high mortality rates. AAMs are facing an unprecedented crisis because it is difficult for them to acquire self-confidence and self-esteem within the chaos of modern economic and social life. The tools to address the problem have been diminished. Future research should concentrate more on examining the dilemmas of the AAM instead of continuing to do research on isolated problems such as crime, violence, and unemployment. Social action is crucial to improving the image of the AAM, and African Americans themselves must help diminish the dilemmas faced by AAMs.

The authors examine evidence from criminology and psychiatry relevant to the overrepresentation of Afro-Caribbeans and Africans in secure psychiatric hospitals in England and Wales. The following factors are considered: race and crime, mental health legislation, patterns of patient recruitment, factors associated with compulsory admission, employment practices, psychiatric and social services and discrimination, attitudes of the Black community, concepts of mental illness, psychiatric diagnosis and cultural factors, behavioral disturbances, risk to others, and perceptions of personality. The relevance of the use of stereotypes in institutional decision making is discussed. A model is suggested that takes into account the way in which disadvantage influences the mental health and behavior of Black people, thereby creating and maintaining stereotypes of Black people, which interact with institutional processing.

Data from the 1983 and 1984 General Social Survey (J. A. Davis and T. W. Smith, 1988) were used to examine four explanations of Whites' opposition to residential integration. Results indicate that two forms of racism, fashioned prejudice and a sense of racial group position, consistently influenced opposition to residential integration. Class-based explanations had little explanatory power. Pragmatic objections, in this instance self-interested concerns, had small but equivocal effects. The value and ideological factors of political conservatism and individualism exerted a modest influence on Ss' attitudes on residential integration. Implications for developing more synthetic theories and understanding the social dynamics of race issues are discussed.

The author describes the process of decision making in capital cases in the overwhelmingly White justice system in two Georgia judicial circuits under Georgia's post- Furman v. Georgia death penalty statute. The study is intended to complement the statistical analyses done by other researchers (e.g., D. C. Baldus et al; 1983) in this area, by linking the behavior of various actors in the process over time to the incentives and sanctions of the system. The study shows how the system works to produce racial disparities and discrimination. Possible explanations for racial disparities and discrimination include intentional discrimination, unconscious racial identification, and institutional racism.

This chapter describes the history of slavery and the subsequent realities of racism, oppression, and discrimination that have created a special meaning to the secrets of African-American families in this country. It explores the complex issues and many levels of secrets within African-American families from both the historical and the current cultural context and the implications of these secrets for therapists who are treating these families. Case examples are secrets about skin color, secrets related to extended family, informal adoption, and parentage, secrets related to alcohol, drug abuse, and AIDS and secrets related to the welfare system and the invisibility of Black men.

This chapter focuses on historical factors that have affected African-American family functioning, including enslavement, emancipation and migration, and early social policies. The impact of these historical processes on contemporary family phenomena is examined, including the recent issues of marriageability, decisions to delay marriage or to never marry, and the timing of parenthood. A sociohistorical perspective provides one means to examine the aspects of black family life that have impacted contemporary attitudes and beliefs about these families and demonstrates that the history and social conditions of African Americans in the U.S. have affected a number of phenomena such as family structure (whether a family is headed by two parents, a single female-headed, a single male-headed, or extended kin), underemployment (due to inadequate job skills and inequality of opportunities), discrimination (based on race and gender), and family formation (the timing of family formation and the availability of marriage partners).

Recent reports reaffirm huge disparities in the health of Blacks compared to other Americans. These disparities persist in part because of the current attempt by health policy makers to frame racially based health differences in non-racial terms. Yet an historical analysis shows that since ancient times, Blacks have been the victims of racism in the biomedical sciences; health-system discrimination and deprivation; and later, medical and scientific exploitation. Race and class-based structuring of the health delivery system has combined with other factors, including physicians' attitudes conditioned by their participation in slavery, and the scientific myth of Black biological and intellectual inferiority, to establish a "slave health deficit" that has never been corrected. Until the persistent institutional racism and racial discrimination in health policy, health delivery, and medical educational systems are eradicated, African-Americans will continue to experience poor health outcome.

The authors examine the racial tolerance of 187 non-Black elementary teacher education undergraduates as compared to 97 other undergraduates at a university in the Rocky Mountain region of the U.S.. Ss were administered two racial attitude instruments. Findings indicate no statistically significant differences in racial attitude scale scores between teacher education students and other Ss. However, an interaction effect between student status and religious affiliation was found. Nonfundamentalist teacher education students as a group expressed more positive racial attitudes than other groups of Ss, whether those other groups were fundamentalist in their religious affiliation or were nonfundamentalists from the general student population.

The study describes the Scale for the Effects of Ethnicity and Discrimination (SEED). The first construct of the scale, valence of ethnicity (VE), consists of two subscales, valence of ethnicity for self (VES) and valence of ethnicity for others (VEO). The second construct was labeled perception of discrimination (PD). The sample of freshmen included 45 males and 120 females (68 Hispanics, 51 Blacks, and 46 West Indians) who were accepted into a program for economically and educationally disadvantaged students. Results show that the PD and VES subscale of the SEED were reliable and appropriate for use with a multicultural population in assessing levels of VE and PD. The VEO subscale yielded low to moderate correlations, except for the West Indian students, who scored near zero reliability for this subscale.

In this study 100 White undergraduates (aged 18-36 years) completed the White Racial Identity Inventory and the New Racism Scale of C. K. Jacobsen (see PA, Vol 72:30592). Results suggest that both White men and White women may be expressing racist attitudes, but they may do so in different ways. White men at all levels of racial awareness seemed to hold racist beliefs and attitudes. White women, in contrast, exhibited racist beliefs and attitudes primarily when their level of racial awareness was low in that they might deny the importance of race.

Pregnant women in nonmetropolitan communities are believed to use prenatal care services at lower rates than are metropolitan residents due to higher levels of poverty, lower levels of insurance coverage, and declining numbers of local hospitals and physicians. Yet scarce data exist on actual patterns of prenatal care use in nonmetropolitan areas. This study provides national estimates of prenatal care use among African-American, White, and Hispanic women who delivered in 1988 in non-metropolitan and metropolitan areas of the United States. This study finds that non-metropolitan residents are no more likely than metropolitan residents to go without care, to enter care late, or to make fewer visits. Non-metropolitan residents are more likely to receive "inadequate" prenatal care as measured by the Kotelchuck Adequacy of Prenatal Care Utilization Index, with Hispanic residents having the highest rates of inadequate care. These findings are consistent with recent state-level reports, and they suggest the need to target prenatal care policies for populations in greatest need.

The two basic objectives of this chapter are a) an evaluative review of literature and research on subcultural differences in human sexuality, and b) the development of a theoretical framework that synthesizes sexuality with the subcultural dimensions of race, ethnicity and social class. The three areas that link sexuality to the social structure are kinship, power and ideology. Kinship patterns are discussed due to the custom of marrying within subcultural groups. Power is also salient; those subcultures with more power will tend to obtain more control over sexuality than those with less power. Ideology is crucial because the system of sexual beliefs, supported by dominant groups, ensures current societal arrangements and combats challenges to the status quo.

In this study prejudice against fat people was compared with symbolic racism. An anti-fat attitudes questionnaire was developed and used in several studies testing the notion that antipathy toward fat people is part of an "ideology of blame." Three commonalities between antifat attitudes and racism were explored: (1) the association between values, beliefs, and the rejection of a stigmatized group, (2) the old-fashioned antipathy toward deviance of many sorts, and (3) the lack of self-interest in out-group antipathy. Parallels were found on all 3 dimensions. No in-group bias was shown by fat people. Fatism appears to behave much like symbolic racism, but with less of the negative social desirability of racism.

This paper is concerned with the way in which discussions of the health status of people from minority ethnic groups and the delivery of health care to such groups has been constructed, in the nursing literature in particular, within a culturalist framework which has many serious drawbacks. The paper reviews the argument for a "multicultural" approach to health care and also discusses some of the main implications of this analysis for the education of health professionals. It suggests that health care workers and those responsible for the education of such workers, need to reassess learning needs in the light of a critique of the effects of an analysis based on "cultural pluralism" and "ethnic sensitivity". The paper suggests ways in which the nursing curriculum must be broadened to take into account the limitations of a culturalist inequality and their influence on health and on a service delivery.

In this study thirty-seven journalism school administrators completed a questionnaire that elicited information on (1) courses and curriculum content related to communication of knowledge and understanding of racism, race, and the media; (2) number of instructors belonging to racial minorities; (3) number of students belonging to racial minorities; and (4) general attitudes concerning the relationship of the respondent's school to racial minorities. Results show that one-sixth of the Ss reported existing courses related to racial minorities, and another school reported a course to be offered the following fall. The most common course was basically a historical look at Black newspapers (and sometimes at other media).

In this study results of a 10-year ethnographic study of Navajo youth show that racial and cultural differences intertwine with power relations and that Navajos' success or failure in school is part of the process of racial conflict. Subject to discrimination in workplaces and curricula, they are more academically successful when more secure in their traditionalist culture.

This chapter considers the effects of social, cultural, and historical changes on the self and identity of Native Americans: what have been the effects of the long-term repression and neglect of the Native American people on their sense of self and identity and what is the result of externally imposed and involuntary changes in self forced upon this group. Describes present-day experiences of Native Americans, including their experiences with language, cultural conventions concerning time, school experiences and outcomes, family structure and attitudes toward children, and the problems of disability and suicide. The chapter addresses the issue of what can be done to clarify the self-concepts of Native Americans and to enhance their feelings of self-esteem.

This study notes that there has been social and political progress in the U.S. in the past forty years and cites an incident in 1941 in the U.S. House of Representatives in which a Jewish Congressman died after replying to an anti-Semitic remark. It is argued that ethical standards of conduct now inhibit displays of overt racism against minority politicians in public settings.

The author responds to J. J. Ray's (see PA, Vol 82:35458) comments on J. Duckitt's (see PA, Vol 81:19909) study of subtle racism. Contrary to Ray, it is argued that the subtle racism scale does predict self-rated interracial behavior to at least a moderate degree. There is strong evidence indicating that authoritarianism is related not only to racist attitudes but also racist behavior.

The author determined whether conformity to social pressures is an important determinant of racial prejudice, particularly in social groups where prejudice is normative. Three-hundred and three

White undergraduates (mean age 19.3 years) in pre-reform South Africa completed measures of interracial attitudes and authoritarianism, perceived normative pressure from immediate family and close friends, and conformity. Measures of perceived normative pressure to hold prejudiced attitudes correlated positively and substantially with Ss' prejudiced attitudes. However, correlations between social pressure and racial prejudice were not due to conformity and probably reflected mechanisms such as socialization and homophilic selection. Conformity proneness also showed little association with overall racial prejudice or deviation from modal prejudice levels. Authoritarianism was a powerful correlate of prejudice regardless of the degree of normative pressure experienced.

This study used a sample of 303 White undergraduates in South Africa to cross-validate J. H. Duckitt's (see PA, Vol 80:3957) subtle racism (SR) scale. The validation of the SR scale was also extended by investigating its association with self-reports of actual interracial behavior. Findings show a high level of internal consistency on the SR scale and a strong correlation with an interracial behavioral intention scale. These findings as well as significant correlations with self-reported interracial behavior support the validity of the SR scale. Findings also indicate a very powerful relationship between anti-Black prejudice and authoritarianism and seem to confirm the SR scale as a more subtle and less direct measure of anti-Black racial prejudice in South Africa.

This chapter considers intergroup relations and attitudes as individual rather than as group phenomena. Theories such as realistic conflict theory and social identity theory look at intergroup phenomena at the analytic level of the social group. White South Africans, for example, are generally prejudiced against native Africans. However, some white South Africans show considerable within-group variability in their attitudes towards native Africans. Explaining this variation in the prejudiced attitudes of individual members of social groups requires theories and approaches focusing on the individual in the interpersonal context as the appropriate level of analysis.

The author investigated the psychometric properties and correlates of B. Altemeyer's (1981) Right-Wing Authoritarianism Scale (RWAS) using 217 White South African college students. The RWAS was factorially unidimensional and reliable, and it correlated powerfully with validity criteria of authoritarianism, such as civil liberties stance, anti-Black prejudice and discrimination, liberalism/conservatism, and acceptance of parental religious beliefs. The particularly strong correlation with anti-Black prejudice contradicted previous findings suggesting that this correlation would be very weak in settings where racism was widespread or normative.

This study developed and validated a new, more indirect, and subtle measure of anti-Black racial prejudice, using data from 217 undergraduates. The subtle racism scale was unidimensional, highly reliable, and showed powerful associations with a number of validity criteria, outperforming a more traditional measure of racism.

John Duckitt contributes a unique historical analysis of social scientific understandings of prejudice. He integrates an otherwise confusing mass of popular theories and perspectives into a coherent explanatory framework and develops this into a systemic multilevel approach to the problem of reducing prejudice in society and individuals. From Duckitt's perspective, prejudices are remarkable not in their existence, but in their ubiquity--the ease with which they can be aroused, their variety of expression, and the tenacity with which they are held. He demonstrates that, although it is unlikely that the universal psychological processes which underlie a fundamental propensity for prejudice can be changed, the degree to which they come to be expressed can be: at the level of social structure and intergroup relations, in the social influences to which individuals are exposed, and in individual susceptibility.

The relationship of prejudiced personality traits with racism and anti-Semitism was examined with 150 Asian American and White university students. The Prejudice (PR) scale, composed of 32 items from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, was administered along with the McConahay racism scale and the Selznick and Steinberg Anti-Semitism scale. Results indicated that for Whites, the PR scale was significantly correlated with old-fashioned and modern racism and anti-Semitism, replicating Gough's 1951 study (Gough, 1951) with the PR scale. However, no such relationship was observed for the Asian American group. This suggests that personality traits of prejudicial attitudes may be relatively stable for Whites but may not be related to outgroup bias for other racial or ethnic groups.

This chapter reviews the literature and argues that people of color have been marginalized in criminology. Contends that discrimination is additive and interactive and that women of color are particularly ignored in criminology because they experience many types of discrimination. Asserts that visual images in textbooks reinforce traditional stereotypes about race and gender. Presents the results of a study on the visual images of women of color in introductory criminology and criminal justice textbooks by examining whether textbook illustrations provide socially constructed images of women of color which mirror social reality. The chapter concludes by discussing ways to make women of color more visible in the discipline and argue that curriculum transformation plays an important role in achieving this goal.

The authors investigated the attitudes of 211 university students both before and after seeing the Public Broadcasting film "Who is David Duke?" The film provided evidence of Duke's current racism, anti-Semitism, and pro-Nazi leanings. In a previous study by R. Eisenman (see PA, Vol 80:45134) with university students in Louisiana, the majority did not change their attitudes after watching the film. However, in the present study, students' attitudes showed change in an anti-Duke direction. Findings are discussed and reasons given for the differences between the two samples, and for the popularity of Duke, a former leader of the Ku Klux Klan.

Both before and after seeing the Public Broadcasting System film "Who is David Duke?", 94 college students (50 females; 14 Blacks) indicated like or dislike of Duke and indicated whether or not they thought he was a racist. The film provided evidence of Duke's current racism, anti-Semitism, and pro-Nazi leanings. Nevertheless, the majority of the students did not change their attitudes after watching the film. Just over 50% of the students liked Duke both before and after seeing the film. All Black students were anti-Duke. Of those who did change their attitudes after seeing the film, 23% of the women and 8% of the men became more negative toward Duke. The reasons for the popularity of Duke are discussed.

This paper examines the effect of socioeconomic position on the differences in the 3-year rates (1990 to 1992) of reported cases of gonorrhea and chlamydia between Black and White adolescents, aged 12 to 20 years, residing in San Francisco. The relative risks for Black were 23.4 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 20.4, 27.8) for gonorrhea and 9.3 (95% CI = 8.3, , 10.3) for chlamydia. Adjusting for poverty and occupational status, the relative risks were 28.7 (95% CI = 22.5, 36.1) for gonorrhea and 8.9 (95% CI = 7.4, 10.6) for chlamydia. This study demonstrates that factors other than poverty and occupational status account for the racial/ethnic differences in the rates of gonorrhea and chlamydia among adolescents in San Francisco.

The author examines four potential cultural explanations for the relatively high levels of gun ownership among White southerners. The relevant cultural variables account for only a small portion of this regional disparity. Results show modest links between southern subcultures of racism and conservatism and firearm ownership. There is much weaker support for previous suggestions that southern gun ownership reflects a regional subculture of defensive violent attitudes. However, the "southern sporting gun subculture" hypothesis finds no support.

This study determined the extent to which racial identity (as part of the self-concept) and the perception of discrimination influenced the career aspirations of 61 female and 50 male non-Hispanic African-Americans enrolled in a primarily White university. Ss completed a demographics questionnaire, the Racial Identity Attitude Scale, a revised form of the Turner Perception of Discrimination against Blacks scale, and the Turner Perception of Discrimination against Women Scale. Racial identity attitudes were not significantly related to traditional career aspirations of either men or women. Neither perception of discrimination against African Americans nor perception of discrimination against women were significantly related to the career aspirations of either women or men.

This article examined the relationship between African American graduate students' experience of the imposter phenomenon and their racial identity attitudes, worldview perspectives, academic self-concept, background characteristics, and graduate school environment. It was hypothesized that racial identity, Afrocentricity, academic self-concept, and certain demographic characteristics would differentially predict imposter feelings. The results of multiple regression analyses revealed support for some but not all of the hypotheses.

The authors present a contemporary perspective on the resurgence of racially motivated harassment and violence against minority students at predominantly White institutions of higher education. An overview of minority student experiences on White campuses is given, and these experiences are linked to general perceptions of racism in contemporary society. The scope of racial-ethnic incidents on campuses is evaluated through a content analysis of national and selected local and Black-oriented newspapers. It is argued that the recent upsurge in racism against minority students on White campuses was implicitly encouraged by previous national administration and by majority individuals in leadership roles.

The research examines an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes based on the evaluations that are automatically activated from memory on the presentation of Black versus White faces. Study One, which concerned the technique's validity, obtained different attitude estimates for Black and White participants and also revealed that the variability among White participants was also predictive of other race-related judgements and behavior. Study Two concerned the lack of correspondence between the unobtrusive estimates and an individual difference in motivation to control prejudiced reactions when predicting MRS scores. The theoretical implications of the findings for consideration of automatic and controlled components of racial prejudice are discussed, as is the status of the MRS.

The author conducted in-depth interviews with 24 Black college students, administrators, and faculty members to provide a detailed description of the barriers faced by Black college students in predominantly White colleges. A typology of different kinds of discrimination is also presented as background for a tentative theory of cumulative discrimination. Contemporary discrimination is described according to the dimensions of location of the discriminatory action, the type of actor doing the discrimination, and the type of discriminatory action directed against Blacks. The continuum of discriminatory practices included aggression, exclusion, dismissal of subculture, and typecasting. The cumulative effect of such practices by students, faculty, and alumni is cited as a possible reason for declines in college enrollment and graduation for Black Americans, at predominately White colleges.

The authors discuss the business experiences of Black entrepreneurs by examining the situation of 76 Black contractors in the U.S. construction industry, using 76 in-depth interviews in a Southern metropolitan area. Racial barriers faced by Black contractors in several areas of the construction industry are documented. Real discrimination is found in unions; in White general contractors' contracting and bidding processes; in construction project conditions; and in the bonding, lending, and supplier networks critical to a successful construction business. Looking at persisting discrimination theoretically, it is suggested that there are three dimensions of discrimination and exclusion: cumulative, interlocking, and externally amplified dimensions of discrimination.

This study examines the differential power of explanation of a sexual conservatism theory of homophobia against a more general theory of intergroup prejudice. 48 female and 31 male undergraduates completed a survey assessing contemporary attitudes toward women, Blacks, and homosexuals, as well as their affective orientation toward sex. Sexual conservatism, as measured by an affective dimension of erotophilia-erotophobia, and social prejudice, as measured by racist and sexist beliefs, were independent and equal predictors of antihomosexual sentiment. Distinct etiological differences may exist in the development of the homophobic personality. Findings are discussed within the context of G. M. Herek's (see PA, Vol 72:30728) functional approach to understanding attitudes toward lesbians and gay men.

In this paper presented at the spring meeting of the Transcultural Psychiatry Society, March 1983, the effects of race on adoption and fostering in the UK are discussed. Although statistics are not available on the effect of these services on ethnic minorities, Black parents have questioned the value of fostering for the child and the permanency that may keep them from their children. It is suggested that placement must take into consideration the effects of racism, cultural ideology, lack of funds for preventive work, and the negative effect of foster care on the child. Placement with non-Black families may expose Black children to values that have no relevance to their future or to a "color does not matter" attitude that is unrealistic. Placement that allows the Black child to have continued contact with the Black community is required, and funds are needed for recruitment of Black foster families. It is suggested that if the child's needs are considered first, the society will provide funds for parent-enabling services to all families in need.

The author discusses how the perpetuation of the social malady (racism) continues to exacerbate urban education problems among Blacks and how this has threatened not only the future of Black Americans but also the nation's standing as an advanced technological society. The article examines the history and current status of educational problems in contemporary urban America. An analysis is given of how racial discrimination and economic factors are related to the academic and behavioral problems manifested by Black urban students. The futuristic implications of urban educational problems and recommendations to address these problems are discussed.

The authors discuss four specific determinants of disproportionate racial representation on juries: (1) racial discrimination in jury selection procedures, (2) socioeconomic barriers preventing full-community participation by Blacks and other minorities, (3) judicial discrimination that allows racially demarcated jury representation, and (4) institutional racism and bureaucratic discrimination in perpetuating judicial inequality. It is concluded that there still exists a racially demarcated jury system that systematically discriminates against Blacks and their full jury participation.

Many health care inequalities seem to be racially based. Racism and racial conflict in America can be explained in the context of three historical time periods and the prevailing economic systems of those times. The problem of access to basic health care for the Black underclass is enormous. Traditional solutions of health education, health promotion, and low cost health care have done very little to change the outcomes of increased morbidity and mortality. Health care professionals need to confront the real problem of inadequate life chances and limited economic resources for the underclass through research and the restructuring of our health care delivery system.

The aversive racism perspective assumes that given the historically racist American culture and human cognitive mechanisms for processing categorical information, racist feelings and beliefs among white Americans are generally the rule rather than the exception. The term aversive racism is used to describe the type of racial attitude that the authors believe characterizes many white Americans who possess strong egalitarian values. Aversive racism represents a particular type of ambivalence in which the conflict is between feelings and beliefs associated with a sincerely egalitarian value system and unacknowledged negative feelings and beliefs about blacks.

The U.S. Black (African-American) population has a higher stroke incidence and mortality than the U.S. White population. This article reviews the English language literature relating to observed racial and ethnic differences in stroke mortality, incidence, and risk factors. In addition, Black-White differences in stroke subtype, pathophysiology, outcome, recurrence, and treatment are reviewed. The significance of these racial and ethnic differences and directions for future research are explored.

The author of this chapter asserts that testing and assessment have a key role to play in facilitating the proper allocation of young people to courses and teaching groups and ensuring the kind of educational treatment appropriate to their needs and potential. There have been only limited local surveys on an ethnic basis. Ethnic data for enrollment in the UK are incomplete in that they reflect simply a head-count rather than the full picture of applying for and actually gaining a place in school. Prejudice in the school system will limit the range of human relationships possible in Britain's multi-ethnic society, will block open wide-ranging enquiry and obstruct the development of a healthy stimulating curiosity about the world.

The authors examined ways in which educational films (EFs) represent inter-ethnic relations in health care (HC) and compared results with the outcomes of an earlier analysis of EFs on discrimination and racism by F. Glastra and E. Kats (1989). Results suggest that films on HC presuppose a professional will to learn and to adapt, but at the same time they emphasize the obstacles posed by ethnic backgrounds. In such films, the traditional culture figures as the main reason for the setbacks the ethnic patient experiences and for the problems professionals face to accommodate the new situation. EFs on ethnic minorities and HC could be improved by analyzing problems and by paying attention to institutional constraints.

This study explored the relative importance that an individual gives to principled moral reasoning and to relativism with respect to positive and negative attitudes toward minorities and to traditional and modern forms of racism. Two-hundred and seven individuals (aged 17-57 years) completed survey measures, including the Defining Issues Test and the Learning Environment Preferences. Regression analyses indicate that Ss who were humanitarian-egalitarian in their outlook, who possessed a high level of education, who were less supportive of the Protestant Ethic, and who employed a high percentage of relativism in their decision making were more likely to have positive attitudes toward minorities than those not possessing such attributes. Age was a predictor of negative attitudes toward minorities.

The author discusses parallels between American prison societies and the larger free community in the U.S. in terms of minority relations. A review of the literature investigates three distinct minorities: Blacks, women, and the elderly. Data indicate that the racism, sexism, and ageism which are characteristic of contemporary American society, are reflected in its prison structure. It is concluded that the question of appropriateness of segregation of adult prisons by race and age, and of providing special policies and treatment for the elderly poses a dilemma to those professionals who are concerned with the well-being of prisoners as well as to those interested in prison policy and administration. While human needs must be accommodated, discrimination that can contaminate a dual prison system must be avoided. While a fine line separates special need satisfaction and discrimination, it is incumbent upon corrections administrators to identify that line, and to create and implement policies accordingly.

This chapter shows that increased growth in those 80 or older will be reflected across all ethnic groups, by the middle of the 21st century. These profound demographic changes are creating enormous challenges for mental health professionals who provide care to minority elderly. The author emphasizes the importance of the issues faced by those professionals in providing services to ethnic minority groups (Blacks, Hispanics, Asian/Pacific Islanders, and American Indians/Eskimos/Aleuts).

The authors conducted a question-wording experiment that tested whether questions concerning the rights of a threatening group affect a respondent's willingness to extend the same rights to other unrelated groups. Data were taken from the National Opinion Research Center General Social Surveys from 1972 to 1984. Findings suggest that a threatening stimulus reduced an S's tolerance toward unrelated groups to a considerable degree, although the effect was smaller for more highly educated Ss.

The author attempted to assess the effects of an ethnic slur on evaluations of a targeted minority group member by an S who overheard the slur. There were 126 White undergraduate Ss who participated in a study ostensibly concerned with debating skills along with four confederates. Two of the confederates, one of whom was Black, were always picked to engage in a debate which the others were to evaluate. The Black debater either won or lost the debate. After the debate, one confederate-evaluator criticized the Black in a manner that either did or did not involve an ethnic slur; in a control condition, no such comment was made. Based on the notion that ethnic slurs activate negative schemata regarding members of the targeted minority group, it was predicted that when the Black debater lost the debate, the ethnic slur would lead to lower evaluations of his skill. The results supported the hypothesis and are consistent with a cued negative schemata explanation. No effect was demonstrated when nonracial criticisms were used or when a racial slur was combined with a win for the Black debater.

This book presents the results of a study designed to study three factors that contribute to many Hispanic students' lack of success in American schools: contextually and culturally inappropriate educational methods, prejudice, and discrimination against Hispanic students. Approximately 500 professionals and parents from 19 states answered a 400 hundred item questionnaire. The book provides teachers, counselors, and psychologists with an educationally relevant description of the Hispanic culture in the U.S. and the contextual aspects of the lives many Hispanics live as well as suggestions for taking these characteristics into account when they work with Hispanic students and their parents. It also informs about the kind of prejudicial and discriminatory treatment Hispanic students experience in school and offers suggestions for eliminating it.

This chapter elaborates on two stressors that are putatively unique to ethnic minority workers (i.e., in-group-out-group proportions and prejudice and discrimination). It discusses the moderating role of social support on stress. Presents findings from a survey the authors conducted to examine stress and health outcomes in ethnic minority and non-minority employees who held different jobs. In particular, they examined the influence of proportional representation of the in-group, employees' perceptions of perceived discrimination, and level of social support, on job-related tension and self-reported health problems. It focused on whether person-environment incongruence on relevant dimensions yielded parallel or divergent patterns among Hispanic and White employees (within a university setting).

This study explored the readiness with which issues of race come to the minds of Americans (the "accessibility" of racial issues) by assessing the frequency with which Americans refer to racial issues when discussing politics. References to racial issues in National Election Studies' open-ended surveys from 1952-1992 were analyzed, and the possibility that a language of symbolic racism has taken the place of socially unacceptable explicit references to race among Whites was examined. The idea that other issues such as crime, poverty, and welfare have become "code words" for Whites to communicate continued anxiety about race was also investigated. Little evidence was found to support the idea that Whites used code words to express hostility toward Blacks.

This book is unique in its honest confrontation with real problems and its challenge to many assumptions and practices in education and public policy. It rests on the conviction that equal opportunity in formal education is necessary but not sufficient to enable students to achieve socioeconomic success in adult life. The author demonstrates the importance of social relations that are not restricted to the classroom, such as mutually shared values and communication patterns. By focusing on the clash of socioeconomic styles that often coincides with desegregation, Hanna offers explanations for aggressive and other disruptive school behavior and then presents coping strategies for parents, teachers, governments, the private sector, and concerned citizens. "Disruptive School Behavior" illuminates the widespread educational problems on a national scale.

The author discusses the placement of African American males in special education programs focusing on one of the more detrimental outcomes of the social forces that mitigate against Black males in school and society. Results reveal that educational programs are biased against Blacks. This groups representation of special education is greater than their overall percentage in the schools. Data from various sources to support the argument is presented. Various classifications to understand the concept of disability are discussed. On the basis of the reviews, recommendations are made to help ameliorate the situations discussed. African Americans should be respected and their talents recognized and developed rather than interpreted as deficits.

This study examined the impact of victim characteristics on the judgment of behavior as being sexist or racist. One-hundred and twenty-three undergraduates read eight scenarios describing instances of everyday discrimination. The race, gender, and SES of the victims in the scenarios were varied systematically. Each scenario was followed by three consecutive questionnaires that assessed the degree to which Ss perceived the behavior of the agent as racist, sexist, or otherwise. Blacks of low SES, regardless of gender, were more often considered to be victims of racism than Blacks of high SES. Women of high rather than low SES, regardless of race, were more likely to be considered victims of sexism. This findings demonstrates that it is not always the less empowered group that is judged as being the most discriminated against.

Derived from a set of qualitative methodological procedures of analysis and validation of verbal reports, findings from both small group laboratory sessions and naturalistic observation settings are presented illustrating nonconscious expressions of racial ideology. Literal verbal productions are shown to yield metaphorical or subliteral references to racial concerns and stereotypes. The findings are discussed in terms of psychological and sociocultural levels of conditioning, prejudicial intent, perception of "difference," and cognitive structure of prejudice. Ten laboratory illustrations are included.

This book seeks to summarize what is known about the sources of racial and ethnic prejudice in the U.S. and to identify some ways that individuals and organizations can act to reduce intolerance and discrimination, and thus render a person's race and ethnicity irrelevant to the determination of his or her chances to live the good life and contribute to the welfare of others.

The authors investigated the relationship between British race prejudice and economic beliefs by administering an Attitudes Towards West Indians scale, personality and attitudinal measures, and an Economic Locus of Control scale (ELOC) to 72 British adults. Results show racism to be significantly related to authoritarianism and the external/denial subscale of the ELOC. Further analysis showed scores on the authoritarian attitudes scale and the external denial subscale to be significant predictors of prejudice.

The authors surveyed 106 South African (predominantly Afrikaans-speaking) Whites regarding attitudes toward South Africa and toward Blacks; measures of authoritarian personality and conformity were also taken. The same measures were completed by 101 South African Asian Indians, except that their attitudes toward Whites rather than Blacks were assessed. Findings indicate that attitudes toward South Africa were found to show only a slight relationship with racism among both samples, which suggests that the theory underlying the ethnocentrism concept of W. G. Sumner (1906) and T. W. Adorno et al (1950) (i.e., that thinking well of one's own group entails looking down on members of other groups) is essentially false.

This study explored the perceptions of thirteen Black college students regarding their needs, coping strategies, and experiences in an all-White institution. Unstructured interviews were used to evoke individual perceptions and descriptions of behaviors related to the racial atmosphere. It was hypothesized that a racism reaction typology had developed among the Ss, and a classification system was devised to reflect the typology. The adaptation styles of six Ss were classified as "partisans," four as "stoics," and three as "renegades."

This is a study of the lives of 10 Black male entrepreneurs (aged 35-50 years) using a biographical interview method. The findings support the theory by D. J. Levinson et al (1978) of developmental periods. The concept of evolving life structure was vibrant and viable. Based on the impact of racial dynamics and racism on Ss' lives, two new developmental tasks of adult psychosocial development are proposed. These tasks include the formation of (a) an individual racial identity that acknowledges and frees individuals of their own racism and prejudices and (b) an individual self-concept dedicated to the eradication of racial discrimination and prejudice from society.

The author examined the influence of religious orientation on attitudes toward an out-group not widely accepted by contemporary religions (lesbians and gay men). Using questionnaire data from 126 White, heterosexual students on four university campuses (3 public), an extrinsic orientation was found to be positively correlated with racism, while an intrinsic orientation was not. Intrinsics, however, tended to be more prejudiced against gay people than were extrinsics. It is suggested that an intrinsic orientation does not foster unequivocal acceptance of others but instead encourages tolerance toward specific groups that are accepted by contemporary Judeo-Christian teachings. It is suggested that attitudes toward outgroups may serve different psychological functions for persons with extrinsic and intrinsic orientations.

This chapter discusses identity formation by examining phenomenological and psychological descriptions of oppression. Identity is explored within the context of biracial oppression, specifically as a consequence of racial projection and internalized alienating racial attitudes. The chapter concludes with some therapeutic recommendations on what is required for an individual of mixed race to maintain optimal psychological health. Although much of the focus here is on the process of identity wounding and thus "worst case scenarios" to express the effect of racial oppression upon individuals from a clinical viewpoint, it is assumed that the reader understands that biracial people often have a very positive identity.

Consistent understatement of support for candidates who take conservative positions on racial issues, and who emphasize those issues in their campaigns in preelection polls, would seem to indicate a reluctance on the part of some survey respondents to honestly express their vote intention, perhaps due to the fear that their intended action might be interpreted as an expression of racism. This research, which utilizes surveys conducted during the 1991 Louisiana governor's election in which David Duke was prominently featured, attempts to develop more accurate alternative measures of support for racially conservative candidates. Findings indicate that more accurate and valid vote intention measures can be constructed through the use of candidate image variables. The findings also call into question the practice of attempting to develop more accurate measures of voter intention through simple reallocation of undecided voters based solely on race.

The author of this article states that there has been much publicity about the "new" form of racism. Minorities are said to be given "affirmative discrimination" in education and work, with the result of stifling initiative and sapping energies to the detriment of all America. In regards to Asian Americans, the author finds evidence for the continued existence of negative discrimination that operates to structurally limit the realization of academic and career objectives. The author suggests that in education and in business, Asian Americans do not receive the same rewards and incentives as their peers.

The literature review and analysis focuses on the historical reference group orientation and personal identity study material done by Blacks in the United States. It argues that these studies were critically flawed in the sense that they made inappropriate assumptions about the link between the two kinds of measures that are the respective foci of their inquiry (i.e., personal identity and group self-esteem). As a result, their conclusions and implications, in terms of the development of psychological and sociological theories based upon their findings, constitute a major obstacle to the ultimate and accurate understanding of the processes of development of Black self-esteem and collective spirit.

Two studies examined the influence of cultural stereotypes and personal factors (one's race,and gender) on perceptions of racial and gender discrimination. Overall, the data suggest that our perceptions of prejudice are strongly influenced by specific expectations regarding who are the prototypic perpetrators and victims of prejudice. More general expectations regarding out-group conflict or regarding only the characteristics of the perpetrator appear to have less of an impact on such perceptions. Additionally, women were found to be more likely than men to perceive sexism directed against men and racism directed at African-Americans and Caucasians. Also, African-Americans were more likely than Caucasians to perceive racist events against Whites and Blacks. The implications of these data are discussed.

The authors propose that it is time for social scientists to recognize the intimate intermingling among community stress, racial and ethnic conflict, and racism and to bring together these concepts in one theoretical framework. The authors investigate and explore the role of community stressors and perceived economic stress on dominant group prejudice, subordinate group economic stress, and well-being outcomes. The Reverberation Theory of Stress and Racism conceptualizes stress and racism as mutually interrelated phenomena and points to their combined reciprocal relationship with (social, psychological and physical) health outcomes. The argument is made that it is crucial to explore the relationships among stress, racism and health within racially and ethnically hierarchically structured societies. The theory states that: (a) personal as well as community level stressors influence members of dominant as well as subordinate groups in a society, (b) this stress contributes directly to increased intergroup conflict/racism in these groups, which in turn will increase the stress level experienced by these different groups, and (c) this stress will influence social, psychological, and physical health outcomes of group members at all hierarchial positions.

The author examined racial threat or self-interest, new symbolic racism, and old-fashioned racism as predictors of attitudes about affirmative action programs. Data from a national survey conducted in the late fall of 1978 for the National Conference of Christians and Jews included attitudinal responses from 1,584 Whites. The dependent variable was the responses to various affirmative action programs, the independent variables included items used to measure symbolic racism and self-interest, and the control variables included a Black stereotype scale and a tolerance of interpersonal intimacy scale. Self-interest, new symbolic racism, and old-fashioned racism were all found to be related to attitudes about affirmative action programs and remained so when a variety of control variables were included in the regression analyses. The New Racism scale was clearly the best predictor of attitudes about affirmative action programs but had many underpinnings from traditional sources of racism. Possible reasons for the effect of self-interest on attitudes about affirmative action programs that had not been related to racial attitudes in earlier studies are discussed.

The findings are reported for a study of social relationships among 89 minority workers' at work and the social-behavioral tendencies that influence their health. There were six potential correlates of Ss' health that were examined: levels of self- and collective esteem, levels of perceived prejudice and discrimination experienced on the job, perceived differences in values between minority and majority organization members, and individual expressiveness. Higher levels of value differences with a supervisor were associated with lower blood pressure levels. Value differences with a supervisor had the expected significant, negative relationship to health as assessed by an illness checklist. Self-esteem had a positive relationship to health problems but a negative relationship to high blood pressure.

This book is about the personal experiences of people in mixed marriages. Here the marital partners consider the changing sets of advantages and constraints mixed marriages have imposed on them and their children. In addition to discussing the impact of society on their marriages, they speculate on the impact their marriages have had on the attitudes of others. It is the view from inside the mixed marriage which makes these personal narratives significant. They provide sharp contrasts to those who understand mixed marriages solely in the context of intergroup relations, social control, and social dominance. They hit directly at popular myths and fears. These narratives illustrate the artificiality of social constructs like ethnicity, race and culture.

The author expresses the view that race, in this society, is a social status with psychological effects that have consequences for actual and presumed mental health. The consequences range from subtle forms of self-doubt to feelings of superiority to anger at privileged others.

The author comments on a case vignette concerning racism and political correctness (see PA, Vol 82:31437). The author asserts that there is insufficient data to prove intentionality through cause-effect linkages based on covariation. It is also determined that the speech does not fall under the restrictions of free speech established by legal precedent. However, because the Fourteenth Amendment guarantees equal protection, the slur in question may be part of a more general hostile environment for African-American women at the campus.

This chapter deals with the role that biological determinism plays, and has played, in influencing general opinion and public wisdom on issues of race and gender. Racism and sexism are two phenomena of persistent prejudice, and here we will discuss how theories of inheritance have helped to perpetuate them.

Two propositions that would have established a paid Martin Luther King holiday were defeated in Arizona's statewide elections on November 6, 1990. Communities and counties with high proportions of senior adult voters cast proportionately more votes against these propositions. The issue of whether this is an example of racism among the primarily Anglo senior adult voters of Arizona is examined. Three models are proposed to account for the general pattern of election-related behavior and the vote itself: (1) proactive racist, (2) pragmatic self-interest, and (3) fortress mentality. It is suggested that proactive racism and pragmatic self-interest accounted for less of the opposition to a paid holiday honoring Martin Luther King than did a fortress mentality that has developed through a combination of circumstances. Attention is also given to the larger question of senior adults as perpetrators and victims of bigotry.

The author examines G. W. Allport's teachings (1954, 1988) on racism and equality. Emphasis was on racial attitudes and interactions. Topics highlighted include (1) prejudice, as normative, pervasive, and intractable, (2) Allport's two-mindedness, (3) equal employment opportunity and affirmative action, and (4) mandatory school busing. Also examined are conclusions about attitudes toward integration; the prejudice-discrimination relation; and stereotypes, expectancies, and behavior.

The author defines stigma reversal as the imputation of guilt and moral inferiority to the members of a dominant group on the basis of descent when the moral justification of the group's position of advantage is being redefined. Evidence of the use of stigma reversal as an argument in support of protective discrimination or preferential treatment of minority group members is presented. It is postulated that stigma reversal is related to changes in self-conception that accompany minority protest movements and redefinition of the sense of group position even by members of the dominant group. The negative consequences that stigma reversal may have for public policies designed to help disadvantaged minorities are discussed.

The author presents a qualitative analysis of "dysconscious racism" as reflected in the responses of teacher education students to an open-ended question about knowledge and understanding of social inequity. Content analysis of 57 responses shows how Ss' thinking reflects internalized ideologies that justify the racial status quo and devalue cultural diversity. A teaching approach for counteracting the cognitively limited and distorted thinking represented by dysconscious racism is described. The need is stressed to make social reconstructionist liberatory teaching an option for teacher education students who often begin their professional preparation without having considered the need for fundamental social change.

The author hypothesized that a favored color is chosen by most Americans for describing their skin, while unfavorable colors are attributed to other peoples. The favorable and unfavorable connotations of 5 color terms (i.e., white, black, brown, red, yellow) were compared on the basis of an analysis of definitions in The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles and the New Dictionary of American Slang. White was characterized by more favorable connotations than the other four color terms. The potential contribution of color terms to nationalism, ethnocentrism, and racism in the form of ethnoscience is noted.

The authors conceptualize biological, symbolic, and aversive racism on the basis of their most characteristic components. 1,760 Dutch secondary school students (aged 14-20 yrs) completed a questionnaire measuring biological racism, ethnocentrism, symbolic racism, and aversive racism. In addition, a subgroup of 587 Ss answered 6 questions on behavioral intention and stereotype attributions. Results show that (1) the distinguished forms of racism, operationalized on the basis of literature research, were largely corroborated by empirical data from this study; (2) the forms of racism can be arrayed on one underlying Guttman-type dimension; and (3) egalitarians, aversive racists, ethnocentrists, symbolic racists, and biological racists scored significantly differently on the variables measuring various expressions of prejudice.

The author presents a case vignette concerning racism and political correctness. The vignette involves a college student accused of making a racial slur toward a group of African-American sorority members who were shouting outside his dormitory window. Three discussants were asked what ethical issues, related to freedom of expression and hate speech, are relevant to the incident and how the case should be evaluated. Their remarks follow: M. Laird (see PA, Vol 82:31438), J. M. Jones (see PA, Vol 82:31436), and W. von Hippel (see PA, Vol 82:31443).

The author comments on a case vignette concerning racism and political correctness (see PA, Vol 82:31437). It is argued that desires to be morally and socially correct must be weighed carefully against the concern about the gradual erosion of fundamental rights and freedom of speech. Court rulings seem to be in agreement that universities have the authority to control student conduct, particularly toward the goal of providing an environment conducive to education. However, the court appears ready to reject arguments that universities need further regulation of speech to accomplish their reasonable time, ways, and manner restrictions.

In Study 1, 72 Black Canadian adults read a scenario in which they were ultimately denied an apartment on the basis of their color. The degree of evidence of discrimination in the scenario had an effect on the preference for some of the behaviors examined. Some of the behaviors (e.g., seeking advice) were clearly preferred to others (e.g., organizing a boycott). In Study 2, 42 Bengali Canadians read a scenario in which they applied for a position for which they had the qualifications. After an interview and notification that the offer was made to a more qualified person, they found out that they did not get the position because of their visible minority status. Self-directed responses to the situation (e.g., working harder) were preferred to a variety of overt actions taken within or outside the company. Results are discussed in terms of the process and problems of responding to discrimination.

In this article, the authors develop a brief questionnaire that assesses racist discrimination in the lives of African Americans, and describe the results of preliminary studies using the questionnaire. The Schedule of Racist Events (SRE) is an 18-item self report inventory that assesses the frequency of racist discrimination (specific, stressful racist events) in the past year (recent racist events) and in one's entire life (lifetime racist events), and measures the extent to which this discrimination was evaluated (appraised) as stressful. Results revealed that the SRE has extremely high internal consistency and split-half reliability. Racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms and to cigarette smoking. These findings highlight the negative consequences of racism and provide for the validity of the SRE as a measure of (culturally specific) stress.

Racism in the U.S. today must be perceived as a barrier to Whites and non-Whites alike for the realization of their maximum economic, psychological, and social growth. Because the current social climate in America seems regressive, some form of preventive educational measure must be taken to foster more positive attitudes among the diverse segments of the population. Multicultural education shows promise for reducing tensions between diverse ethnic, racial, religious, and national-origin groups.

To examine how Hawaiian Samoans are treated, the legal decisions of the Hawaii Housing Authority's (HHA's) eviction board from 1966-1985 were examined, and interviews were conducted in 1987 with the HHA's prosecutors, board members, and others connected with the eviction process. Samoans were discriminated against in financial cases. However, interviews show that Samoans were disadvantaged largely because their excuses were not persuasive and would not be regardless of the ethnicity of the tenants making them. Samoans made such excuses more often than other tenants because excuses that are reasonable within the Samoan culture do not seem reasonable to judges from a different culture. The authors refer to this consequence of cultural hegemony as cultural discrimination and note dilemmas posed by the concept.

The author analyzed changes in the nature of racial discrimination in intercollegiate football in the Southwest Conference in 1978 and 1989. Using sports information guides from Southwest Conference universities, data were obtained on 596 Ss who played intercollegiate football in 1978 and 444 who played in 1989. It was hypothesized that African-American athletes are more likely to occupy peripheral football positions and less likely to occupy central positions in comparison to White athletes and that African-Americans are more likely to experience unequal opportunity by having to exhibit superior athletic qualifications. Results indicate that Black student-athletes had substantial representation in Southwest Conference football programs. However, findings suggest that race is an important factor in player position placement.

The author discusses the nature and some repercussions of accent discrimination, emphasizing that accents associated with racial, ethnic, or cultural minorities are most likely to pose a barrier to effective communication when two elements (communicative competence on the part of the speaker and the listener's goodwill) are missing. Accent discrimination, referred to more specifically as language-trait focused discrimination, is discussed in terms of the workplace and the courts. An employer has considerable latitude in matters of language, provided in part by a judicial system that recognizes in theory the link between language and social identity but in practice is often confounded by blind adherence to a standard language ideology.

In the present investigation of jury bias, an innovative methodology was used. High in both experimental and mundane realism, this study incorporated a procedure whereby participants believed that they were actually on a real jury whose decisions would really affect the defendant. Forty-eight Anglo and forty-eight Chicano undergraduates served on six-person juries of varying sex and ethnic composition. Ss read two cases involving Anglo or Chicano defendants, completed a predeliberation questionnaire, and then attempted to reach a unanimous decision. Ss then completed a postdeliberation questionnaire that also measured their affective response to the defendant. Anglo Ss were more likely to express a negative affective response to the Chicano defendant and to attribute guilt to the defendant during the predeliberation assessment, although assessments of guilt by Anglo and Chicano Ss equalized during deliberation. Anglo Ss were more likely to change their vote to guilty, while Chicano Ss tended to change theirs toward innocence. Assessments of guilt were also found to depend on the ethnic and sex distribution of jury members.

This study presents a perspective on American policy on race and education, which is then compared to British policies. The fact that the National Institute of Mental Health includes racism as a deterrent to good mental health, and addresses itself to programs to prevent it, is significant. Racism in the U.S. is a product of more than 300 years of subordination of Asian-Blacks, Blacks, Hispanics, American Indians, and Alaskan Natives by the White majority. Racism is also deeply rooted in British culture but has only been recognized as such since the immigration of Black people brought the issue home. American policies on desegregation, equal opportunity, bilingual education, affirmative action, and race relations are discussed in terms of how Britain can learn from U.S. successes and mistakes in constructing a better educational system to serve the needs of all minorities.

This chapter notes that ingroup bias and favoritism can be observed even in the absence of competition or conflict over resources. The authors describe a model of intergroup relations suggesting that biased ingroup comparisons are the result of social comparison motives, based on individual needs for self-enhancement. They consider whether self-esteem influences ingroup bias in a laboratory paradigm, and distinguish between personal self-esteem and collective self-esteem as possible determinants of bias. The chapter also examines the role of self-esteem in prejudice and intergroup comparisons.

Discusses the role of parents and culture in transmitting racism and its attendant hostility and hate to children.

Unequal Justice: A Question of Color is a much-needed comprehensive examination of racial/ethnic minorities and crime. Coramae Richey Mann demonstrates the importance of skin color in determining how individuals are treated by the legal system. Criminologists, law enforcement agencies, and criminal justice policymakers agree that minority groups in the United States are disproportionately involved in crime. This fact is typically explained as resulting from the prevalence of various criminogenic factors within minority cultures--high unemployment, criminal subculture, relative deprivation. Another major objective of the book is to investigate the experiences shared by historically disadvantaged racial minorities--African Americans, Asian Americans, Hispanic Americans, and Native Americans--at each level of the criminal justice system.... As previously noted, the primary focus of the book is the adult male racial minority offender, but where feasible, research and data on minority female offenders and juveniles are introduced.

Leslie Margolin challenges the most common assumptions underlying gifted education. His analysis of the gifted child movement shows how scholars formed the concept of giftedness in their writings, how they provided detailed documentation of the characteristics such children were thought to embody, and how they managed to spread that vision to a community of believers. In doing so, he demonstrates that social "assets" as well as social "problems" can be viewed as social constructions, the products of competing claims. The author explains how gifted education is the obverse side of the "pedagogy of the oppressed," how it supports racism and classism, and singles out the children of the affluent for training in dominance. In exposing the role of gifted education in propagating social inequality, "Goodness Personified" questions the academic rigor of such teaching. This book illustrates how the various procedures used to confirm the personal and social traits associated with giftedness serve at the same time to support and confirm the nongiftedness of those who are excluded. Margolin shows that the effects of gifted education are global and systemic, affecting the way all children are seen.

The authors examined the differences among ethgender (ethnic and gender) groupings on esteem measures in a cohort of students in grades 7-12 in 1983 and again in 1986. The view that institutionalized racism and sexism result in lower self-esteem among minorities was supported by the data. The relationship holds even though various controls were introduced. The view that race is the primary framework within which gender operates received mixed support. The notion of ethgenders seems to be a viable one, but its exact operation still is not clear. The notion of public and private domains points to cultural differences that help to insulate the self-concepts of Black and Chicano adolescents more than those of youths in other groups. The notion supports the view that the effects of dominant group culture and institutions on the self-esteem of minorities are mediated by minority cultures.

This study explored the effects of perceived racial/ethnic and sexual orientation discrimination on African-American lesbians' relationships with friends, lovers, family, and community support systems. Data were gathered from interviews with eight self-identified Black lesbians. Ss who had been in relationships with White lesbians reported more frequent experiences of discrimination that influenced their later decision to seek a Black lesbian partner for their next love relationship. Reactions toward lesbian community events ranged from avoidance to determined participation in response to feelings of alienation and racism. Black lesbians perceived the African-American community to be conservative in their views on homosexuality. Nevertheless, for half of the Ss their interest in participation in the African-American community overshadowed their concerns about negative reactions to their homosexuality.

The authors examined the perceived seriousness of harassing behaviors. Data from a survey of 194 White college students demonstrate that observers' perception of the seriousness of verbal, racial harassment depended both on the harassing behavior itself and on the account offered by the harasser for the behavior. Apologies and some excuses reduced perceived seriousness of racial harassment, while justifications and other excuses increased it. However, only apologies had statistically consistent effects. Personal experience with racial harassment did not affect perceived seriousness, although gender did.

The study surveyed 242 adults (mean age 49.6 yrs), 17% of whom were Black, from a midwestern city. The study sought to estimate a multiple indicator model for the effects of traditional prejudice, symbolic racism, and rational choice on four types of opposition to school busing--attitudes toward two-way busing, one-way busing, protest, and White flight. Traditional prejudice and symbolic racism were found to be partially independent dimensions whose effects on busing opposition were entirely mediated by certain expected costs of busing. Thus, findings support both racism and rational choice explanations. There is, however, no support for the notion that symbolic racism is a more important source of opposition to racial change than is traditional prejudice.

Thirty-seven male and 44 female White undergraduates were administered the Modern Racism Scale (MRS) before evaluating job candidates with identical resumes, except for a picture of a Black or White male candidate, under contexts designed to elicit positive or negative discrimination by ambivalent (presumably prejudiced) Ss. The ambivalence concept was used to demonstrate the construct validity of the MRS, a relatively nonreactive scale of racial prejudice. This concept asserts that the prejudiced (ambivalent) White behaves positively or negatively toward Blacks depending on the context of the behavior, while the less prejudiced White behaves more consistently across contexts. Results show that, as predicted, when the candidate was Black, the MRS was negatively correlated with hiring evaluations in the negative context and positively correlated in the positive context. When the job candidate was White, context and the MRS were unrelated to hiring evaluations.

The author compared the results of a 1992 survey study of discrimination against 221 Black, Asian, and Hispanic undergraduates with a similar study of 132 Black, Asian, and Hispanic undergraduates completed in 1988 (A. McCormack, 1990). Discrimination against Black and Hispanic students on college campuses increased over the four years. The greater the interaction of Ss with other members of the academic community, the higher the rate of discrimination. Incidents involving other students remained the most popular source of discrimination, followed by incidents involving university faculty and campus police. A comparison of written descriptions of incidents suggests that the nature of discrimination has become more blatant over the four-year period, characterized by verbal harassment by other students and differential treatment by university personnel.

The authors examined the self-protective role of social attributions by comparing attributions made by 57 White-lower class mothers, 40 White middle-class mothers, 52 Black lower-class mothers, 55 Black middle-class mothers, 51 Cuban lower-class mothers and 54 Cuban middle-class mothers to the self, one's ethnic group, and to factors external to oneself. When presented with the hypothetical case where they personally were successful in improving their employment status, all groups attributed success to the self. In the case of failure, the lower-class Whites were the only group that attributed the failure to themselves personally; the middle-class Blacks attributed failure mainly to ethnic group membership (discrimination); the lower-class Blacks to both group membership and factors external to individuals or groups; and the middle-class Whites exclusively to factors external to individuals or groups.

The authors examined the effect of racial cues on candidate perception and evaluation. In an experimental setting, the race of a hypothetical candidate was manipulated; the causal model then examined how the candidate's race influenced voters through stereotyping biases and through the more affect-laden impact of racial prejudice. The experimental procedure consisted of measures of racial resentment and personal policy preferences, exposure of the 424 White Ss to information about a fictitious candidate, and a set of candidate evaluation and perception measures. Racists tended to disparage the personality attributes of Black candidates, thus creating less positive candidate evaluations. The pervasive influence of cognitive and affective expectations on Black candidate perception and evaluation are noted, and how these psychological biases might inhibit formation of a nonracial, middle-of-the-road campaign by Black candidates is reviewed.

The author discusses the concept of resource competition (RC) as it applies to ethnic relations. Several aspects of ethnicity that are affected by RC are identified: ethnic identification, the importance of ethnicity as an organizing principle of daily life; racism and prejudice, the extent of negative stereotypes and evaluations of ethnic outgroups; interethnic conflict, the likelihood of violent conflict among ethnic groups; and ethnic mobilization, the pursuit of ethnic group interests through ethnic organizations and activism. Two major forms of RC (economic and political) are defined and the support in the social science literature for the stated propositions is examined.

The author discusses the mental health of visible ethnic minorities in Canada. The minority population in Canada has increased due to a change in immigration laws that allows more non-Europeans into Canada. Issues addressed include cultural factors in mental health, racism and intolerance, and employment related to stress. Also discussed are high-risk visible minority women who have disadvantages as mothers, wives, and workers; they also have problems if they have poor language skills. In a study of 219 South Asian women, J. C. Naidoo (1985) found that the most helpful factors in the adjustment process include familiarity with western culture, belief in self, a supportive husband, and involvement in community activities.

The author used qualitative and quantitative methodology to study the experiences of 72 Ethiopian Jews who had immigrated to Israel. Forty-three were relative newcomers, while 29 had lived in Israel for an average of 7.3 years. In addition to structured interviews with these Ss, informal interviews were held with government officials, social workers, and other community members. While Ss did not report cases of discrimination based on color, they did believe some Israelis had prejudicial attitudes toward them because of their African background. The group most hostile toward Ss was the Soviet Jewish immigrant group. Ss also reported a lack of social intimacy with Israelis.

This study explores issues related to shades of color of Black women from a literary perspective. Novels are cited, documenting the plight of the Black women who were dark versus light skinned. It is argued that literature reflects life and, within the lives of Black women, stereotypical attributions and prejudgments based on skin color have led to intragroup rivalries. Color conscious attitudes are inculcated in children in the homes and reinforced in the society. A historical overview of color consciousness, beauty and social attitudes, racism and sexism is discussed to provide a view of the psychological development of the Black woman.

Discusses issues that affect ethnic minorities' career behavior and describes career-intervention strategies based on J. Cummins' (see PA, Vol 74:8647) intervention model to help persons of color (POC) increase their meaningful participation in the national work force by the Year 2000. Issues that limit career opportunities for POC include the educational inequality caused by racism and oppression in mainstream society and the ethnocentric orientation of some White career-development teachers. The thesis of Cummins's model is that education that empowers POC fosters their educational success. The author discusses intervention strategies to enhance career development for POC, based on the model's four variables leading to empowerment. These variables are (1) knowledge generated by ethnic minorities rather than by teachers or counselors, (2) recognition of minority cultures, (3) involvement of minority communities, and (4) advocacy for minorities.

Some of the problems caused by malaria, which places a huge roadblock in front of economic progress in the Third World, may be solved by a new vaccine, created by Dr. Manuel Patarroyo, a Columbian physician and researcher. "Imagine how things would be if Canadians had malaria," he says. "Episodes last ten days, then there are ten days of recovering. This leaves only ten days each month in which to do some productive work. Then imagine killing the population of Toronto each year, and you can see the huge toll in terms of the number of yearly deaths globally from malaria." His discovery also raises the issue of "intellectual racism" due to the criticism of Patarroyo's methods by Western scientists. Patarroyo, meanwhile turned down a $60 million offer for his vaccine and instead donated the patent to the World Health Organization.

Australia's culture is hard because of its secularism, its populism, its racism, and its masculinism. It is a hardness that militates against the transformation of Australia into a gentler society. The hardness of Australian culture has its roots in the historical fragmentation of Australia from Britain and in the early historical experiences of the convict era. However, there are aspects of Australian experience that offer grounds for great expectations. These include possibilities related to: Understanding the Aboriginal cultures, transformation by ethnic pluralism, and proximity to Asian and Pacific cultures. These three aspects present a challenge to the cultural roots that feed the hard culture.

This author examines the disproportionately high numbers of Afro-Caribbean children placed in schools for children with emotional and behavioral difficulties (EBDs) in Britain. Eight-hundred and seventy-four children from 176 schools were identified as having emotional and/or behavioral difficulties. Only half as many Black Asian children as expected were identified with difficulties compared with three times as many Afro-Caribbean children. Demographic data show a socioeconomic bias either in terms of the development of EBDs or in the identification of them. Differences were noted in parental attitudes to school problems by ethnic background.

This author conducted a 10-year follow-up of research on religiosity and social justice concerns among college students in the UK and the U.S.. The original study (H. W. Perkins, 1985), based on data from 1,197 students at five diverse colleges and universities in 1978-1979, was replicated during 1988-1990 with 1,102 students at the same institutions with the same survey. Results in each country consistently failed to reveal high religiosity as an "opiate" inherently fostering less compassionate, inegalitarian, or racist attitudes. Rather, in both time periods, strong religious commitment was linked to heightened humanitarianism and a reduction in prejudice. However, nominal or moderate religiosity, as opposed to no religious allegiance, was associated with more racist viewpoints, a cross-national finding persisting over time.

In this study jury instructions specifying the conditions required to find a defendant guilty may serve to dissipate jurors' overt prejudices. To test this hypothesis, 247 White university students read a transcript of a trial in which the race of the victim and the defendant were varied. In addition, half the Ss were given jury instructions that specified the elements of the crime and noted that to find the defendant guilty each element had to be proven beyond a reasonable doubt. Ss then rated the guilt of the defendant. Ss overwhelmingly rated Black defendants guiltier than White defendants, especially when the victim was White. However, these differences disappeared when Ss were provided with jury instructions.

The authors investigated ethnic socialization by parents of minority group adolescents. In-depth interviews were carried out with 60 American-born Japanese-American, African-American, and Mexican-American high school students (aged 16-18 yrs) and one parent of each adolescent. There were significant ethnic group differences in parental ethnic socialization. African-American parents more frequently reported discussing prejudice with their child. Japanese-American and African-American parents emphasized adaptation to society more than Mexican-American parents. Japanese-American parents stressed achievement only more than the other two groups. Adolescent use of a proactive style of coping with stereotypes and discrimination was associated with higher self-esteem. The use of verbal retorts was related to lower self-esteem. Parental socialization did not have a strong relationship to adolescent outcomes.

American ethnic groups are often thought of as discrete categories to which people belong. It is often assumed that those categories explain some aspects of psychological functioning. However, ethnicity is a complex multidimensional construct that, by itself, explains little. To understand its psychological implications, it is necessary to identify and assess those aspects of ethnicity that may have an impact on outcomes of interest. In this article, the author examines three key aspects of ethnicity: cultural norms and values; the strength, salience, and meaning of ethnic identity; and the experiences and attitudes associated with minority status. These aspects are best understood in terms of dimensions along which individuals and samples vary, rather than as categories into which individuals can be classified.

This book presents a model and mechanism for improving interracial and interethnic relations. It emphasizes the need for multicultural awareness programs to be preventive, developmental, and long-term. A comprehensive theoretical context of racial and ethnic identity development serves as the foundation for planning and directing multicultural programs.

Pope-Davis, D.B. & Ottavi, T.M. (1992). The influence of White racial identity attitudes on racism among faculty members: A preliminary examination. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 389-394.

In this study 87 male and 83 female White college faculty (aged 29-70 yrs) completed the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale and the New Racism Scale. The Ss' racial identity attitudes were predictive of racism, and men had higher levels of disintegration (DI) attitudes than did women. DI is generally characterized by discomfort with interpersonal interactions with Blacks and, as a result, a desire to reaffiliate with individuals who are ethnically similar. Reintegration, idealization of everything perceived to be White and denigration of everything thought to be Black, was a significant predictor of racism for men, which suggests that the higher the reintegration attitude, the more likely men are to have racist attitudes.

From a very young age, children show signs of prejudice. However, it is not clear whether those who are the most biased in one domain (e.g., gender) are also the most biased in other domains (e.g., ethnicity). This study addressed the issue using multiple measures of prejudice (negative bias) in three domains: gender (male, female), ethnicity-language (French Canadian, English Canadian), and body type (overweight, normal weight). The flexibility of attitudes (i.e., the belief that people from different categories can possess similar traits) was also assessed. A total of 254 children (127 boys, 127 girls) from kindergarten to the sixth grade participated. Children demonstrated clear biases against groups to which they did not belong, although attitudes became more flexible and prejudice declined somewhat with age. There was little predictive power across domains; that is, there was no evidence that prejudice represents a general characteristic that differentiates children.

In this study social dominance orientation (SDO), one's degree of preference for inequality among social groups, is introduced. On the basis of social dominance theory, it is shown that (1) men are more social dominance-oriented than women, (2) high-SDO people seek hierarchy-enhancing professional roles and low-SDO people seek hierarchy-attenuating roles, (3) SDO was related to beliefs in a large number of social and political ideologies that support group-based hierarchy (e.g., meritocracy and racism) and to support for policies that have implications for intergroup relations (e.g., war, civil rights, and social programs), including new policies. SDO was distinguished from interpersonal dominance, conservatism, and authoritarianism. SDO was negatively correlated with empathy, tolerance, communality, and altruism. The ramifications of SDO in social context are discussed.

Raabe, B. (1993). Constructing identities: Young people's understandings of power and social relations. Feminism and Psychology, 3, 369-373.

This study explored the ways in which young people construct their identities in relation to inequalities between (1) men and women and (2) ethnic majority and minority groups. Study 1 examined identity construction and representations of social relations among 558, 14-15 year olds. Study 2 examined broadly based power-social relations produced and reproduced in 58 young peoples' ideas about family and education. Study 3 examined the dynamic negotiation of the meanings of responsibility, autonomy, and decision making in 20 group discussions of such issues as family life, marriage, sexuality, and educational aspirations. The three studies support the argument that issues relating to inequality are central to the identity representations of some young people. Individualistic analyses that focus on the importance of personal responsibility and choice are widely used by the majority of young people in making sense of their social worlds.

The author used the 1988 General Social Survey to investigate the extent to which traditional prejudice and symbolic racism have syndromic qualities among White Americans. Correlations between the measures of traditional prejudice and a wide variety of authoritarianism-related social attitudes were often moderately high. However, the associations of the measure of symbolic racism with these attitudes typically were similar. Additionally, the loadings of both types of prejudice on a general attitudinal authoritarianism factor were moderately high. Moreover, the measures of traditional prejudice and symbolic racism had substantial correlations with one another. Thus, there was little in the findings to support the characterization by D. O. Sears and his associates of symbolic racism as a distinctive racial disposition.

The author comments on J. Duckitt's (see PA, Vol 81:19909) presentation of putative behavioral validation for a subtle racism scale, in which he goes on to report that subtle racists were highly likely to be authoritarian. The correlation of 0.2 between attitude and behavior demonstrates only 4% common variance and hence does little to upset the long-recognized orthogonality between attitudes and behavior.

The author surveyed 140 residents of New South Wales, Australia, who responded to a questionnaire sent to 500 people randomly selected from electoral roles, to examine attitudes toward aborigines. The scale was composed of six measures of personality variables, cognitive style, and attitudes. Demographic data were also examined. Results indicate that racism toward aborigines had more to do with conservative ideology than with personality or social variables. Prejudiced people were not more likely to be in manual occupations or more poorly educated than nonprejudiced people.

This study explored the association between class and racial attitudes, using random general population surveys conducted between 1973 and 1983 in Australia, California (US), Germany, and South Africa in which either a racism or a conservatism scale was included. The correlations of the scales suggest that people in manual occupations are not especially conservative but are quite likely to be prejudiced against some racial groups (except against Aborigines). Using education as a class indicator, similar results were obtained for racism but not for conservatism. In a majority of the studies, less educated Ss tended to be more conservative. The idea that racial attitudes form part of an ethnocentric personality (T. W. Adorno et al, 1951) is called into question by these findings.

In Germany neurotics (assessed by the Maudsley Personality Inventory) were found to be especially tolerant toward immigrant workers from Southern Europe, and in South Africa anxiety was unrelated to dislike of Blacks. It is concluded that any relationship between measures of personal adjustment and racial sentiment is a product of the cu