status

THE CURRENT STATUS OF ETHNIC MINORITY RECRUITMENT,
RETENTION, AND TRAINING IN PSYCHOLOGY

CEMRRAT was established to address issues related to the recruitment and retention and graduation of ethnic minority students and faculty, as well as issues related to curriculum and education and training. Not only are these areas of concern interdependent, but demographic data confirm dramatic underrepresentation in each area.

The psychology pipeline. Compared to their representation in the U. S. population, ethnic minorities are substantially underrepresented at all levels of the educational pipeline that lead to the doctoral degree in psychology. Figure 2 illustrates the increasing narrowing of this pipeline as the numbers of ethnic minorities become less and less, until the numbers are a bare trickle. Here are the dramatic figures that document this serious state of affairs.

Ethnic minority students continue to graduate from high school at a lower rate than White students. Also, despite an initial trend for ethnic minorities to show increasing numbers who graduate, decreases have occurred in recent years. Thus, even at the start of the educational pipeline, a major constriction is occurring.

According to U. S. Census 1996 Current Population Survey data as reported by the American Council on Education (1995, Table 1), high school completion rates among 18- to 24-year old youth during the 20-year period of 1973 to 1993 demonstrated the patterns depicted in Figure 3.⁶

Among Whites, rates remained stable during the 20-year period at approximately 83%.
Among African Americans, rates showed a moderate increase from 66.8% in 1973 to a high of 77.0% in 1990 and then declined to 74.8% by 1993.
Among Hispanics/Latino(a)s, rates fluctuated greatly, ranging from 55.2% in 1973, reaching a peak of 62.9% in 1985, declining to a low of 52.0% in 1991, and increasing again to 60.7% in 1993.
Regardless of race/ethnicity, women exhibit higher rates of high school completion than men. In 1993, this gender gap was 5 percentage points for Hispanics, 3.9 percentage points for African Americans and 3.2 percentage points for Whites.

College enrollment. Ethnic minority student representation among persons enrolled in college is almost the same as their representation in the general population. Indeed, during the period of 1982 to 1993, ethnic minority student college enrollment increased by nearly 58% (American Council on Education [ACE], 1995, p. 13). This increase is due mainly to the enrollment of women and older students. Figure 4 (on page 24) illustrates the changes in college enrollments across time.

The following racial/ethnic college enrollment trends existed during the period 1976 to 1993 (ACE, 1995, Table 5; National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 1995, Table 201).

The proportional representation of Non-Hispanic Whites in the nation's colleges steadily declined from 82.2% in 1976 to 73.9% in 1993, despite a 17.6% increase in their numbers on college campuses.
African Americans's proportional representation increased minimally from 10.0% in 1976 to 10.5% in 1993, despite a 36.6% increase in their numbers in college.
Hispanics/Latino(a)s increased their proportional representation at colleges from 3.8% in 1976 to 7.4% in 1993, while increasing their numbers 160.1%.
Asian Americans increased their proportional representation from 1.8% in 1976 to 5.1% in 1993, while increasing their numbers by 274.4%.
American Indians increased their proportional representation from 0.7% in 1976 to 0.9% in 1993, while increasing their numbers by 61.7%.

Such trends are continuing. In 1993, students of color comprised 23.9% of the nation's undergraduate enrollment; non-Hispanic Whites comprised 73.9%, and nonresident aliens comprised the remaining 2.2%. The number of students enrolled in undergraduate studies continues to increase for each of the four major ethnic minority groups. But in 1992, for the first time in recent history, the number of non-Hispanic White college students decreased. The enrollment of these students declined from 9.5 million in 1991 to 9.1 million in 1993-that is, a 4.2% decline during a 2-year period.

Completing the bachelor's degree. The pool of baccalaureate degree graduates is the primary supplier of graduate students for psychology. But it is at this level of the pipeline that one begins to see significant underrepresentation of people of color. During the period of 1976 to 1993, the following racial/ethnic trends depicted in Figure 5 existed for completion of the bachelor's degree in psychology (Commission of Professionals in Science and Technology [CPST], 1994, Table 2-31; Kohout & Pion, 1990, Table 6; NCES, 1995, Table 257).

In 1975/76, ethnic minority recipients of the bachelor's degree in psychology numbered 5,691 and comprised 11.5% of all such recipients (N = 49,486). In 1992/93, ethnic minority recipients of such degrees numbered 10,842 and comprised 16.2% of all such recipients (N = 66,728).
African Americans' proportional representation varied during the 1976-1993 period-increasing from 6.5% of the bachelor's degrees awarded in psychology in 1976 to 8.1% in 1981, thereafter declining to 5.8% in 1989 and then increasing to 7.1% in 1993.
Hispanics/Latino(a)s' proportionate representation among persons granted the bachelor's degree in psychology has slightly increased from 3.4% in 1976 to 4.8% in 1993.
Asian Americans' representation, although small, has more than tripled-increasing from 1.2% in 1976 to 3.9% in 1993.
Native Americans' representation remained for all practical purposes unchanged during the 1976-1993 period at approximately 0.5%, while their numbers nearly doubled from 192 in 1976 to 344 in 1993.

Enrolling in graduate or professional school in psychology. The next constriction in the pipeline involves enrollment in graduate or professional studies in psychology. Related full-time graduate enrollment trends during the period 1981 to 1992 follow (CPST, 1994, Tables 1-36, 1-37, 1-40; National Science Foundation [NSF], 1994, Appendix Tables 6-14 through 6-18). Also, see Figure 6 on page 25.

The proportional representation of African American full-time graduate students in psychology increased from 3.8% in 1981 to 5.3% in 1992, while their numbers increased from 983 to 1,681. In 1991, approximately 23% (or 333) of these students were enrolled at Historically Black Colleges and Universities.
Hispanic\Latina(o) representation increased from 3.7% in 1981 to 5.2% in 1992, and their numbers increased from 955 to 1,642.
Asian American representation increased from 1.3% in 1981 to 3.0% in 1992, that is from 328 to 952.
American Indian representation increased from 0.2% in 1981 to 0.7% in 1992, while their numbers increased from 49 to 208.
In 1992, 13.6% of all (full-time and part-time) graduate students in psychology were persons of color as were 14.2% of all full-time graduate students in psychology.

Completing the master's degree. After their enrollment in graduate school, a smaller number of students of color complete the master's degree in psychology. Hence, there is one more constriction in the pipeline. Related trends for the period 1975/76 to 1992/93 are noted in Figures 7 and 8 below (CPST, 1994, Table 2-30; Kohout & Pion, 1990, Table 6; NCES, 1995, Tables 244 & 260).

In 1975/76, ethnic minority recipients of the master's degree in psychology numbered 727 and comprised 9.5% of all recipients of such degrees (N = 7,613). In 1992/93, ethnic minority recipients of the master's degree in psychology numbered 1,267 and comprised 11.6% of all recipients of such degrees (N = 10,957).
From 1976 to 1993, the proportional representation of African Americans completing this degree remained relatively constant, varying from 5.5% in 1976 to 4.8% in 1989, and then increasing to 5.3% in 1993.
Hispanic/Latina(o) representation increased from 2.7% in 1976 to 3.9% in 1993.
Asian American representation increased from 1.2% in 1976 to 1.9% in 1993.
American Indian representation increased from 0.2% in 1976 to 0.6% in 1993.

Completing the doctoral degree. At this end of the educational pipeline, the picture is that of very small numbers of persons of color. This small number of ethnic minority doctoral graduates from U. S. institutions foretells a severe limitation on the racial/cultural diversity of the pool of academicians, service providers, and scientists in psychology. The related racial/ethnic trends during the period of 1975 to 1992/93 are noted below and in Figures 9 and 10 on pages 26 and 27(CPST, 1994, Tables 2-4, 2-5, 2-9, 2-10, 2-11, 9-1; NCES, 1995, Tables 263 and 245).

Between 1976 and 1993, a total of 3,833 ethnic minorities were awarded a doctorate in psychology, representing 7.6% of all such doctorates awarded (N = 50,763) during that period.
In 1976, ethnic minority recipients of doctorates in psychology numbered 134 and comprised 4.2% of all recipients (N = 3,157) of such degrees. That same year, 430 non-U. S. citizens received doctorates in psychology from U. S. institutions and comprised 13.6% of all such recipients. In 1993, ethnic minority recipients of doctorates in psychology numbered 344 and comprised 9.4% of all recipients of such degrees (N = 3,651). That same year, 182 nonresident aliens received doctorates in psychology and comprised 5.0% of all such recipients. See Figure 10 on page 27.
Between 1976 and 1993, the proportional representation of African American recipients of doctorates in psychology varied minimally. In 1976, 86 African Americans received a doctorate in psychology. In that year, these persons represented 2.7% of all recipients of doctorates in psychology and 7.9% of all African American 1976 recipients of a doctorate degree in any field. In 1993, 134 African Americans received a doctorate in psychology, representing 3.7% of all such recipients and 9.9% of all African American 1993 recipients of doctorates in any field. (In comparison, non-Hispanic White 1993 psychology doctorate recipients comprised 11.7% of all same race 1993 recipients of a doctorate in any field.)
Hispanic/Latino(a) doctorate recipients steadily increased their number and proportional representation. In 1976, 27 Hispanics/Latino(a)s were awarded a doctorate in psychology (representing 0.9% of such recipients and 7.9% of all Hispanic/Latina(o) 1976 recipients of a doctorate in any field). In 1993, 125 Hispanic/Latino(a)s received a doctorate in psychology (representing 3.4% of all such recipients and 15.1% of all Hispanic/Latino(a) 1993 recipients of a doctorate in any field).
Asian American doctorate recipients also increased their numbers and proportional representation. In 1976, 17 Asian Americans received a doctorate in psychology (representing 0.5% of all such recipients and 5.1% of all Asian American 1976 recipients of a doctorate in any field). In 1993, 63 Asian Americans received a doctorate in psychology (representing 1.7% of all such recipients and 4.0% of all Asian American 1993 recipients of a doctorate in any field).
In 1976, 4 American Indians received a doctorate in psychology (representing 0.01% of all such recipients and 10.0% of all American Indian 1976 recipients of a doctorate in any field). In 1993, 22 American Indians received a doctorate in psychology (representing 0.6% of all such recipients and 20.8% of all American Indian 1993 recipients of a doctorate in any field).

Entering the faculty workforce. When all psychologists in the workforce are examined, it becomes clear that ethnic minorities comprise an extremely small percent. And when those who are identified as "academicians" are counted, the number becomes even smaller. Approximately 5,000 of the nation's doctoral psychologists are persons of color. Persons of color constitute 5.1% (N = 3,763) of APA's membership (APA Research Office, 1994b). Among APA's members of color, 16.8% identify their primary role as "academician" (APA Office of Ethnic Minority Affairs, 1994), and only about 10% of new ethnic minority doctorates are likely to become faculty (Russo, Olmedo, Stapp, and Fulcher, 1981).

The following were other trends in the representation of ethnic minorities on psychology faculties during the period 1984 to 1993 (APA Research Office, 1994(a), 1995; NCES, 1995, Table 222).

The proportional representation of ethnic minorities in full-time faculty positions in U.S. graduate departments of psychology barely increased from 6.6% in 1984 to 8.0% in 1993. In that same year, 9.0% of full-time faculty in U.S. undergraduate departments of psychology were ethnic minorities. Among such institutions, 2-year colleges demonstrated the highest ethnic minority full-time psychology faculty representation with 13%.
Among graduate psychology faculty in health service provider subfields, 10.3% of faculty are ethnic minorities; but in non-health service provider subfields (i. e., scientific areas of psychology), only 6.8% of faculty are ethnic minorities.
The representation of full-time African American faculty in graduate psychology departments remained virtually unchanged at 3% during the 1984-1993 period. Among full-time undergraduate psychology faculty, African American representation was 4% in 1993.
Representation of Hispanics/Latino(a)s as full-time graduate faculty increased from 1% in 1984 to 2% in 1993. Also in that year, Hispanics/Latino(a)s comprised 2% of full-time undergraduate psychology faculty.
Asian Americans' full-time graduate faculty representation increased from 1% in 1984 to 2% in 1993. In that year, Asian Americans also comprised 2% of full-time undergraduate faculty in psychology.
Throughout the 1984-1993 period, in both graduate and undergraduate faculties of psychology, American Indian representation was less than 1%.

Other pipeline characteristics. Not only is the representation of ethnic minority students increasingly reduced at each level of the psychology educational pipeline, but their educational choice patterns do not follow traditional directions.

Students of color are more likely than others to attend community colleges. In 1991, 46.8% of all students of color engaged in postsecondary education were enrolled in community colleges (compared to 38.2% of White students). At community colleges, ethnic minorities comprised 24.4% of enrollments in 1991 (CPST, 1994, Table 1-28).
Students of color are more likely than others to attend minority colleges (i.e., Historically or Predominantly Black Colleges and Universities, Hispanic-Serving Institutions, and Tribal Colleges). In 1991, minority institutions awarded nearly 29% of all baccalaureate degrees granted to African Americans, and 19% of all baccalaureates awarded to Hispanic/Latino(a)s (American Council of Education, 1993).

Producing the multicultural curriculum. Ethnic minority curriculum content attracts students interested in diversity and helps all students attain some minimal level of multicultural competence. Faculty interested in diversity are needed to formulate ethnic minority curricula. With the constricted pipeline of students and faculty, it is not surprising to discover that ethnic minority curricula development and research efforts also have been limited. Although some studies do offer some insights with one replication offering some trend information, the relative paucity of information on ethnic minority curricula makes a study of related trends difficult. Moreover, the multicultural curriculum research that has been reported has focused almost exclusively on health provider programs (i.e., clinical, counseling, and school psychology), with almost no existing research on multicultural curricular and pedagogical issues in scientific psychology programs. Some of the major existing findings related to multicultural curricula in clinical, counseling, and school psychology are noted below and in Figure 11 on page 27.

In 1982, the report of an APA survey indicated that only 4.3% of U.S. departments of psychology (17 of 398 responding departments) required a course or practicum training on psychological assessment of ethnic minorities, and 9.5% had an elective multicultural assessment course or practicum (APA, 1982).
Bernal and Padilla (1982) conducted a survey in 1980 of multicultural training in APA accredited doctoral clinical psychology programs. And approximately 10 years later in 1990, a followup of this survey was conducted (Bernal and Castro, 1994). Some of the changes suggested by comparing findings of the two surveys are as follow.
- In 1990/91, Quintana and Bernal (1995) surveyed all accredited training programs in counseling psychology and compared their findings to those on clinical psychology programs as reported by Bernal and Castro (1994). This comparison suggests that the 41 (out of 61) counseling programs who completed the survey had made more progress in diversifying their curriculum than had clinical programs. Nevertheless, as the study's following major findings suggest, the majority of accredited counseling programs do not require a single course related to ethnic minority issues:
- Ponterotto (1996) surveyed both accredited and nonaccredited programs in counseling psychology. Compared to accredited counseling programs, this group of accredited and nonaccredited programs were more likely to require a minority-focused course and less likely to use practicum sites serving ethnic minority populations.
Rogers, Ponterotto, Conoley, and Wiese (1992) surveyed multicultural training in 121 school psychology programs offering doctoral, master's, and specialist degrees. Their major findings included the following:
Summary and conclusions. Demographic data suggest a dramatic change in the racial and ethnic composition of our nation's population. From being "minorities," persons of color will rapidly become the majority population. A number of reasons exist for seeking improvements of ethnic minority representation in psychology's educational pipeline, in the profession of psychology, and in the psychology curriculum. Expanding the educational pipeline would guarantee that a major segment of our youth would receive the training all students deserve to receive. Increasing the numbers of students of color in graduate programs in psychology would increase the availability of the numbers of faculty, research scholars, and service providers needed to close the "underrepresented" and "underserved" gap between the current limited psychological personnel of color and the needs of rapidly growing ethnic minority populations. Increasing the coverage of ethnic minority topics in the curriculum would strengthen psychology's stature in the 21st Century by promoting its investigation and acquisition of substantive knowledge about the behavior of diverse populations and by supporting that kind of training necessary for ensuring all future psychologists are culturally competent as scientists, educators, administrators, and practitioners.
The current status of ethnic minorities in psychology is grim. Despite increases in some areas, the total profile is that of a pipeline that has major constrictions at every level. Already, the numbers of qualified psychological scientists and professionals have failed to keep pace with what would be expected from the increased growth of the nation's ethnic minority populations. Without commitments to innovative actions, the current crises will become an irreversible catastrophe.

⁶Comparable data are not available for American Indians and Asian Americans.

THE CURRENT STATUS OF ETHNIC MINORITY RECRUITMENT, RETENTION, AND TRAINING IN PSYCHOLOGY

THE CURRENT STATUS OF ETHNIC MINORITY RECRUITMENT,
RETENTION, AND TRAINING IN PSYCHOLOGY