A Guide for Including Information on Child Abuse and Neglect in the Undergraduate Curriculum
Section I: An Undergraduate Course on Child Abuse and Neglect
Section II: Basic Materials on Child Abuse and Neglect
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Definitional Issues.
Although several attempts have been made to develop definitions for the various forms of child abuse and neglect, debate in this area continues. There is consensus about the abusive nature of some acts (beating a child with a board, having sexual intercourse with a young child), but lack of consensus about other acts (spanking a child with one's hand, bathing a 9-year-old child). It is important for students to know about the variety of definitions that currently exist and the factors that have been used for arriving at the definitions. Discussions of the impediments to developing generally accepted definitions can help students understand the difficulties of arriving at clear definitions of many important psychological, legal, and public policy issues.
Berkowitz, C. D. (1995). Pediatric abuse. New patterns of injury. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America, 13, 321-341.Dubowitz, H., Black, M., Starr, R., & Zuravin, S. (1993). A conceptual definition of child neglect. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 20(1), 8-26.
Giovannoni, J. (1989). Definitional issues in child maltreatment. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 3-37). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hart, S. N., & Brassard, M. R. (1991). Psychological maltreatment: Progress achieved. Development and Psychopathology, 3(1), 61-70.
McGee, R. A., & Wolfe, D. A. (1991). Psychological maltreatment: Toward an operational definition. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 3-18. (Following this target article, there are 12 responses from other authors and a reply from McGee and Wolfe)
Meadow, R. (1995). What is, and what is not, 'Munchausen syndrome by proxy'?. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 72, 534-538.
O'Hagan, K. P. (1995). Emotional and psychological abuse: Problems of definition. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19, 449-461.
Zuravin, S. J. (1991). Research definitions of child physical abuse and neglect: Current problems: Issues and research. In R. J. Starr & D. A. Wolfe (Eds.), The effects of child abuse and neglect: Issues and research. New York: Guilford.
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The Prevalence of Child Abuse and Neglect.
Even the most conservative estimates of the prevalence of child abuse and neglect show that it is a significant public health problem. Describing the prevalence research will demonstrate to students the significance of the problem of child abuse and neglect. Comparing prevalence estimates based on different sources (e.g., reported cases, community surveys) will provide interesting examples of how sample selection can influence research results. Furthermore, discussing the influence of differences in the definitions of abuse and neglect used by various researchers will reinforce the importance of defining abuse and neglect clearly.
Cappelleri, J. C., Eckenrode, J., & Powers, J. L. (1993). The epidemiology of child abuse: Findings from the Second National Incidence and Prevalence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect. American Journal of Public Health, 83(1), 1622-1624.Finkelhor, D. (1994). Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse. The Future of Children, 4(2), 31-53. (Available from the David and Lucille Packard Foundation, 300 Second Street, Suite 102, Los Altos, CA 94022)
Haugaard, J. J. (1992). Epidemiology and family violence involving children. In R. Ammerman & M. Hersen (Eds.), Assessment of family violence: A clinical and legal sourcebook (pp. 89-107). New York: Wiley.
National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. (1995). Child maltreatment 1993: Reports from the states to the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect. Washington, DC: Author.
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The Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect.
Abuse and neglect have been shown to have significant physical and psychological consequences. In addition, abuse and neglect influence children's attachment to their parents and relationships with their peers. Some research suggests that the consequences of abuse and neglect can last throughout a person's life. On the other hand, research also shows that some abused and neglected children show few if any indications of the adverse consequences seen in other children. Aside from helping students understand the range of consequences of abuse and neglect, discussions in this area can be used to illustrate a variety of theories about personality and behavioral development (e.g., how abuse might influence the development of an insecure attachment style, why abused children might be more prone to experiencing abusive relationships in their adult lives) and of resilience and vulnerability (e.g., why some children might appear less influenced by their abuse than others). Methodological issues, such as why results from research with clinical samples can differ from results from research with nonclinical samples, can also be explored.
Aber, J., Allen, J., Carlson, V., & Cicchetti, D. (1989). The effects of maltreatment on development during early childhood: Recent studies and their theoretical, clinical, and policy implications. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 579-619). New York: Cambridge University Press.Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., daCosta, G. A., Akman, D., & Cassavia, E. (1992). A review of the long-term effects of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16(1), 101-118.
Crittenden, P.M., & Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1989). Child maltreatment and attachment theory. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 432-463). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kendall-Tackett, K., Williams, L. M., & Finkelhor, D. (1993). Impact of sexual abuse on children: A review and synthesis of recent empirical studies. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1), 164-180.
Malinosky-Rummell, R., & Hansen, D. J. (1993). Long-term consequences of childhood physical abuse. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 68-79.
Spaccarelli, S. (1994). Stress, appraisal, and coping in child sexual abuse: A theoretical and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 116(2), 340-362.
Starr, R.H., & Wolfe, D.A. (Eds.). (1991). The effects of child abuse and neglect: Issues and research. New York: Guilford.
Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (1993). Impact of child sexual abuse on females: Toward a developmental, psychobiological integration. Psychological Science, 4(2), 81-87.
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Theories About the Development of Abusive and Neglectful Behaviors in Adults.
A variety of theories have been put forward to explain the development of abusive and neglectful behavior in adults. Theories to explain sexual abuse are often quite different from those explaining other forms of child maltreatment. An exploration of these theories can broaden students' understanding of the variety of influences on adult behavior and can provide concrete examples of the mechanisms by which several theories explain human behavior.
Becker, J. V. (1994). Offenders: Characteristics and treatment. The Future of Children, 4(2), 176-197. (Available from the David and Lucille Packard Foundation, 300 Second Street, Suite 102, Los Altos, CA 94022)Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 114(3), 413-434.
Crittenden, P. (1993). An information-processing perspective on the behavior of neglectful parents. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 20(1), 27-48.
Brayden, R., Altmeier, W., et al. (1992). Antecedents of child neglect. Journal of Pediatrics, 120, 426-429.
Milner, J., & Chilamkurti, C. (1991). Physical child abuse perpetrator characteristics: A review of the literature. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 6(3), 345-366.
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Recognition and Referral of Abused and Neglected Children and Adults.
Prevalence research with undergraduates suggests that 20-30 percent of the students in many courses are likely to have been abused or neglected. Furthermore, the students may experience situations in which they believe that a child is being abused or neglected. A discussion of the variety of avenues available to report abuse and neglect of others or to discuss previous abuse or neglect experiences may be beneficial to some students. Discussion of the several sides of the mandatory abuse and neglect reporting laws can be used to explore the sometimes conflicting rights and responsibilities of individuals, families, and the state. Information about referral requirements in your area may be obtained from several types of local agencies (e.g., rape crisis centers, mental health centers, police departments).
Besharov, D. (1990). Recognizing child abuse: A guide for the concerned. New York: Free Press.Kalichman, S.C. (1990). Mandated reporting of suspected child abuse: Ethics, law, and policy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
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Responses to Child Abuse and Neglect--The Child Protection System.
Reports of abuse and neglect have increased dramatically in the past two decades. Child protection agencies are responsible for initial investigations of allegations of abuse and neglect. They must make complicated and important decisions about the substantiation of abuse and neglect allegations, possible removal of children into foster care, and services for abusive and neglectful families. A basic description of the process that child protection agencies go through in abuse and neglect cases and the difficulty of many of the decisions that caseworkers must make will provide students with a clearer understanding of the issues involved when governmental agencies must intervene in the lives of children and families.
National Commission on Foster Care. (1991). A blueprint for fostering infants, children, and youths in the 1990s. Washington, DC: Child Welfare League of America.Pelton, L. H. (1989). For reasons of poverty: A critical analysis of the public child welfare system in the United States. New York: Praeger.
U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect. (1993). Neighbors helping neighbors: A new national strategy for the protection of children. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Wald, M. S., Carlsmith, J. M., Leiderman, P. H., Smith, C., & French, R. D. (1988). Protecting abused and neglected children. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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Responses to Child Abuse and Neglect--Medical Intervention.
Physicians are often involved in the process of assessing whether a particular child has been abused or neglected. In addition, they may work with other professionals to alleviate the negative consequences of abuse for individual children. This information is likely to be of special interest to the many students who will enter one of the health-care professions. Descriptions of the ways in which various professionals collaborate to meet both the physical and psychological needs of abused and neglected children will provide useful examples of the interdisciplinary work that is becoming more common in health care.
Dubowitz, H., & Newberger, E. (1989). Pediatrics and child abuse. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 76-94). New York: Cambridge University Press.Paradise, J. (1990). The medical evaluation of the sexually abused child. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 37, 839-862.
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Responses to Child Abuse and Neglect--Legal Involvement.
Abused children and their families may be involved in the legal system in a variety of ways. Describing these can help students understand the functioning of the legal system in abuse and neglect cases and the influences of their involvement on children and families. Discussions can focus on important conflicts between defendants' rights and victims' rights (e.g., should hearsay testimony be allowed more easily in abuse cases) and between family rights and state rights (e.g., what process must the state complete to remove a child from an abusive home). Furthermore, discussions of the roles of police, prosecutors, social workers, and mental health professionals in abuse cases can provide important information about how they can function smoothly together or work at cross-purposes to each other.
Kalichman, S. C. (1993). Mandated reporting of suspected child abuse: Ethics, law, and policy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Levine, M., & Doueck, H. .J. (1995). The impact of mandated reporting on the therapeutic process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Melton, G. B. (1994). Doing justice and doing good: Conflicts for mental health professionals. Future of Children, 4(2), 102-118. (Available from the David and Lucille Packard Foundation, 300 Second Street, Suite 102, Los Altos, CA 94022)
Myers, J. (1992). Legal issues in child abuse and neglect. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Shepherd, J. R. (1987). Law enforcement's role in the investigation of family violence. In R. Helfer & R. Kempe (Eds.), The battered child (4th rev. & exp. ed., pp. 392-400). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Whitcomb, D. (1992). When the victim is a child (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
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Responses to Child Abuse and Neglect--Mental Health Interventions.
A variety of forms of psychotherapy have been used with victims and perpetrators of abuse and neglect. A description of these therapies can provide for an interesting exploration of theories on the development and amelioration of mental health problems. For example, therapy to change victims' attributions for their abuse can illustrate the foundations on which cognitive therapy exists, and some interventions with perpetrators of sexual abuse can be used to explore behavioral theories on behavioral change.
Briere, J. N. (1992). Child abuse trauma: Theory and treatment of the lasting effects. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Fantuzzo, J. W. (1990). Behavioral treatment of the victims of child abuse and neglect. Behavior Modification, 14(3), 316-339.
Gaudin, J. M. (1993). Child neglect: A guide for intervention. Washington, DC: National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect.
Giarretto, H. (1982). Integrated treatment of child sexual abuse. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.
Oates, R. K., & Bross, D. C. (1995). What have we learned about treating child physical abuse? A literature review of the last decade. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19, 463-73.
Pearce, J. W., & Pezzot-Pearce, T. D. (1994). Attachment theory and its implications for psychotherapy with maltreated children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 18(5), 425-438.
Wolfe, D. A. (1994). The role of intervention and treatment services in the prevention of child abuse and neglect. In G. B. Melton & F. D. Barry (Eds.), Protecting children from abuse and neglect: Foundations for a new national strategy (pp. 224-304). New York: Guilford.
Wolfe, D. A., & Wekerle, C. (1993). Treatment strategies for child physical abuse and neglect: A critical progress report. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 473-500.
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Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect.
The most effective ways of preventing child abuse and neglect have been debated for many years. Most strategies to prevent physical abuse and neglect focus on abusers and potential abusers, while many strategies to prevent sexual abuse focus on potential child victims. A comparison of these different strategies can be used to examine the general issue of prevention. The difficulties that researchers have encountered in assessing the value of the prevention programs can provide material for interesting methodological discussions.
Daro, D., & McCurdy, K. (1994). Preventing child abuse and neglect: Programmatic interventions. Child Welfare, 73(5), 405-430.Melton, G. B., & Barry, F. (1994). Protecting children from abuse and neglect: Foundations for a new national strategy. New York: Guilford.
Olds, D., & Henderson, C. (1989). The prevention of maltreatment. In D. Cicchetti & V. Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wekerle, C., & Wolfe, D. A. (1993). Prevention of child physical abuse and neglect: Promising new directions. Clinical Psychology Review, 13(6), 501-540.
Willis, D., Holden, E. W., & Rosenberg, M. (1992). Prevention of child maltreatment: Developmental and ecological perspectives. New York: Wiley.
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Aside from materials specific to each of the topics discussed above, a variety of general sources of information on child abuse and neglect exists. These include
Ammerman, R. T., & Hersen, M. (1991). Case studies in family violence. New York: Plenum.Brassard, M. R., Germaine, R., & Hart, S. (1987). Psychological maltreatment of children and youth. New York: Pergamon.
Cicchetti, D., & Carlson, V. (Eds.). (1989). Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (1995). A developmental psychopathology perspective on child abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34(5), 541-565.
Garbarino, J., Guttmann, E., & Seeley, J. (1986). The psychologically battered child: Strategies for identification, assessment & intervention. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gelles, R. J. (1996). Vision 2010: Families and violence, abuse, and neglect. Minneapolis, MN: National Council on Family Relations.
Gelles, R. J., & Loseke, D. (Eds.). (1993). Current controversies on family violence. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Haugaard, J. J., & Reppucci, N. D. (1988). The sexual abuse of children: A comprehensive guide to current knowledge and intervention strategies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Helfer, R. E., & Kempe, R. S. (Eds.). (1987). The battered child (4th rev. & exp. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Paget, K. D., & Philip, J. D. (1993). Recent developments in child neglect. Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 15, 121-174.
Reece, R.M. (1994). Child abuse: Medical diagnosis and management. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
Willis, D. J. Bagwell, W., & Campbell, M. M. (Eds.). (1991). Child abuse: Abstracts of the psychological and behavioral literature. Volume 1: 1967-1985. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Willis, D. J. Bagwell, W., & Campbell, M. M. (Eds.). (1991). Child abuse: Abstracts of the psychological and behavioral literature. Volume 2: 1986-1990. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Wolfe, D.A. (1987). Child abuse: Implications for child development and psychopathology: Developmental clinical psychology and psychiatry. Volume 10. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
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Men Who Molest. (1986). Available from Filmakers Library, Inc. 212-808-4980. A 1-hour video showing group treatment with actual adult sex offenders.When Your Baby Cries. (1993). Emergency Medicine Section, Department of Pediatrics, P.O. Box 26901, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 73190. (405) 271-3307. A 20-minute primary prevention video designed to prevent shaken baby syndrome in the Native American population.
Bitter Earth: Child Sexual Abuse in Indian Country. (1993). National Indian Justice Center, Inc., #7 Fourth Street, Suite 46, Petaluma, CA 94952. (707) 762-8113. A 45-minute video depicting the advantages of an interdisciplinary approach to the investigation, prosecution, and treatment in child sexual abuse cases.
Who Killed Adam Mann? (1992). Frontline, PBS Video. 1-800-424-7963. A 1-hour video of an actual child welfare case in New York City in which a child is repeatedly returned to an abusive situation.
Scared Silent: Exposing and Ending Child Abuse. (1992). Distributed by AIMS Media, 818-773-4300. Hosted by Oprah Winfrey. An Arnold Shapiro Production. A 1-hour educational film on the effects of mental and physical abuse with both child and adult victims and offenders. Distributed by AIMS Meida, 818-773-4300.
Predators. (1991). 48 Hours, CBS News. Ambrose Video Publishing. 1-800-338-4847. A 1-hour video on the state of Washington's response to child molesters.
Four Men Speak Out on Surviving Child Sexual Abuse. (1991). Varied Directions International, 69 Elm Street, Camden, Maine 04843. 1-800-888-5236 or (207) 236-8506. A 30-minute video documenting the long-term effects of child sexual abuse on males.
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Several public and private agencies can provide additional information about child abuse and neglect. These include
American Bar Association Center on Children and the Law, 1800 M Street, NW, Suite 200, Washington, DC 20036, 202-331-2250American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children, 407 South Dearborn, Suite 1300, Chicago, IL 60605, 312-554-0166
Family Violence and Sexual Assault Bulletin, Family Violence and Sexual Assault Institute, 1310 Clinic Dr., Tyler, TX 75701
National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect/National Clearinghouse on Child Abuse and Neglect Information, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, P.O. Box 1182, Washington, DC 20013, 800-FYI-3366
National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse, 332 S. Michigan Avenue, Suite 1600, Chicago, IL 60604-4357, 312-663-3520
National Resouce Center on Child Sexual Abuse. Information Service, 2204 Whitesburg Drive, Suite 200, Huntsville, AL, 35801, 1-800-543-7006
Copyright © 1997 by the American Psychological Association. This material may be reproduced without permission, provided acknowledgement is given to the American Psychological Association.