Sexism in Research
Council voted to adopt the revised 'Guidelines for Avoiding Sexism in Psychological Research' as APA Policy (Attachment A). (1988)
Equal Rights Amendment
WHEREAS, psychological theories and research should have no bearing upon the desirability of the Equal Rights Amendment, which is a matter of human rights rather than of scientific fact;
WHEREAS, unfortunately, unsubstantiated psychological theories and research have nevertheless, been misused to justify discrimination against women and to oppose the Equal Rights Amendment; and
WHEREAS, denial of equal rights to women, as to any other social category, is a grave injustice;
BE IT RESOLVED, that the American Psychological Association (a) asserts that arguments linking sex differences and their origins to the desirability of the Equal Rights Amendment are specious and without foundation; (b) deplores these misuses of psychological theories; (c) supports the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment. (1975)
Resolution on Substance Abuse by Pregnant Women
WHEREAS:
1. Substance abuse is a public health problem with multiple risk factors and complex etiology which, untreated, has been shown to persist;
2. Research indicates that substance abuse is often associated with other mental health and psychosocial behavioral disorders. For example, more than half of adults with drug abuse disorders also have been diagnosed with one or more mental health disorders;1
3. Women are now being prosecuted for drug use during pregnancy in many jurisdictions throughout the U.S.2,3 While the majority of such prosecutions to date have focused on the use of illicit drugs during pregnancy, in some jurisdictions women have also been arrested for non-criminal acts such as drinking alcohol while pregnant;4
4. There is greatly increased concern among researchers, policy makers, prevention experts, and clinicians regarding substance abuse among women. However, while there is a developing body of research on the effects of substance use on the fetus and on exposed infants, there has been insufficient research on the effects of substance use during pregnancy on the woman herself, and on the treatment of chemical dependency during pregnancy.5 Barriers to treatment for women have been recognized but not addressed for more than a decade.6,7 As a result, women continue to be underrepresented in treatment programs and pregnant women are generally denied treatment because of liability concerns;8
5. Increasingly, hospitals are conducting drug toxicology testing on pregnant women and newborns without the knowledge or informed consent of the woman, and these test results are often used by child protective services and law enforcement officials as a sole indicator of child abuse and neglect. In one case, on the advice of a friend who was a nurse, a woman smoked marijuana during labor to relax. When the drug use was detected through a toxicology screen, the mother was separated from her infant immediately after birth, and it took her almost a year to regain the custody of the child.9 Such practices violate a woman's right to give informed consent for medical treatment for herself and her children, and undermine the relationship between health care providers and patients.10 Additionally, given the inadequacy of many fostercare systems, it is questionable in many cases whether separation of the infant from the mother is in the child's best interests;
6. Evidence from health care providers suggests that fear of prosecution and loss of their children may deter women from seeking prenatal care and chemical dependency treatment. Such fear can only increase the barriers to timely health care that already impede access for many women, particularly women of color and the poor;
7. Research has shown that illicit drug use during pregnancy is found among all socioeconomic classes and all ethnic groups, but minority women are disproportionately subjected to punitive interventions for illegal drug use. One study found that minority women are nearly ten times more likely to be reported to state authorities for drug use than are white women who use drugs.11 A state-by-state survey of prosecutions against pregnant women revealed that in eighty percent of cases where the race of the defendant was identified, minority women were involved;12
8. There are a wide variety of substances and behaviors which can harm the fetus but which have not been targeted for application of criminal sanctions; for example, exposure to hazardous materials, use of over-the counter drugs and prescription medicines, cigarette smoking, high caffeine consumption and poor prenatal nutritional habits.13 The potential exists for a much broader application of punitive measures directed at women's behavior during pregnancy and current patterns indicate that minority and poor women will be at greater risk for the application of punitive measures;
9. There is no evidence that criminal sanctions result in improved health for the mother, increased utilization of drug treatment programs, or improved birth outcomes for the fetus. To the contrary, the inadequacy of prenatal care for pregnant women in prisons has been well-documented, and substance abuse treatment programs are rarely available for pregnant inmates.14 In marked contrast, there is evidence that prenatal care can significantly improve birth outcomes for all pregnant women, especially for those who are chemically dependent.
THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED:
That the American Psychological Association
1. Affirms its view that alcohol and drug abuse by pregnant women is a public health problem and that laws, regulations and policies that treat chemical dependency primarily as a criminal justice matter requiring punitive sanctions are inappropriate;
2. Affirms its view that no punitive actions should be taken against women on the basis of behaviors that may harm a developing fetus, including alcohol or drug use during pregnancy;
3. Opposes mandatory or nonconsensual drug testing of women in the course of the provision of perinatal services, except for the purposes of collecting confidential epidemiological surveillance data. Regarding infants, nonconsensual testing should be allowed only when the parent has refused permission for a test that is necessary to determine medical treatment. Results of all tests should be confidential and should not be construed as child neglect or abuse occurring prior to birth;
4. Affirms its view that laws, regulations and policies that require psychologists to function as law enforcement agents regarding pregnant women's behavior are inappropriate. Psychologists are required to comply with any laws in this area but are strongly encouraged to provide information to legislators and policy makers about the negative effects of such laws and to assist in the development of appropriate laws, regulations and policies;
5. Urges that federal, state, and local governments, as well as private organizations, increase current efforts to develop and implement programs to treat alcohol and drug abuse among women, especially pregnant women, and to prevent the use of all harmful substances--licit and illicit--during pregnancy;
6. Urges existing drug treatment facilities to develop outreach and treatment programs addressing the special needs of chemically dependent women and their children;
7. Affirms the use of health care strategies to foster the welfare of chemically dependent women and their children by expanding access to prenatal care and to reproductive health care generally, including family planning services;
8. Recommends additional education and training regarding chemical dependency for professionals in family welfare services, and improved coordination among the various agencies that serve families, including mental health services, chemical dependency services, family counseling services, and child welfare and child protection services;
9. Recommends additional education and training regarding chemical dependency for professionals in family welfare services, and improved coordination among the various agencies that serve families, including mental health services, chemical dependency services, family counseling services, and child welfare and child protection services;
9. Recommends that additional federal funds be allocated for research on prevention strategies to reduce substance abuse during pregnancy, and for the development and evaluation of innovative methods to treat chemical dependency during pregnancy;
10. Recommends the development of programs of the treatment of infants and children exposed to substances in utero. Such programs should emphasize the simultaneous treatment of chemically dependent mothers and their affected children in order to help preserve and strengthen the family unit, and should be integrated with existing programs for children with disabilities. (August 1991)
References:
1. Regier, D.A., Farmer, Me.E., Rae, D.S. Locke, B.Z., Keith, S.J., Judd, L.L., & Goodwin, F.K. (1990). Comorbidity of mental disorders with alcohol and other drug abuse. JAMA, 264 (19), 2511-2518.
2. Hoffman, J. (1990, August 19). Pregnant, addicted and guilty? The New York Times Magazine, pp. 33-35, 44, 53, 55, 57.
3. Moss, K. (1990). Substance abuse during pregnancy. Harvard Women's Law Journal, 13, 78-299.
4. Paltrow, L.M. (1990, Winter/Spring). When becoming pregnant is a crime. Criminal Justice Ethics, 41-47. 5. Jessup, M. & Green, J.R. (1987). Treatment of the pregnant alcohol-dependent woman. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 19 (2), 193-203.
6. Berrien, J. (1989). Pregnancy and drug use: Incarceration is not the answer. Common Ground--Different Planes: The Women of Color Partnership Program Newsletter. pp. 1, 12, 14.
7. Finkelstein, N. (1990). Treatment issues: Women and substance abuse. Unpublished manuscript prepared for the National Coalition on Alcohol and Drug Dependent Women and Their Children. Available from the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, Washington, D.C.
8. NASADAD (1988). State Resources and Services Related to Alcohol and Drug Abuse Problems, Fiscal Year 1987, An Analysis of State Alcohol and Drug Abuse Profile Data. Washington, D.C.
9. Moss, K. (1989, February 5). Testimony before the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Children, Families, Drugs and Alcoholism of the Committee on Labor and Human Resources, 101st Congress, 2nd Session.
10. Moss, K. (1990, March). Legal issues: Drug testing of post-partum women and newborns as the basis for civil and criminal proceedings. Clearinghouse Review, 1406-1414.
11. Chasnoff, I.J., Landress, H., & Barrett, M. (1990). The prevalence of illicit-drug or alcohol use during pregnancy and discrepancies in mandatory reporting in Pinellas County, Florida. New England Journal of Medicine, 332(17), 1202-1206.
12. American Civil Liberties Union (1990). Unpublished survey conducted by the Reproductive Freedom Project.
13. Cole, H.M. (1990). Legal interventions during pregnancy; court-ordered medical treatments and legal penalties for potentially harmful behavior by pregnant women. JAMA, 264 (20), 2663-2670.
14. McNulty, N. (1987-1988). Pregnancy police: The health policy and legal implications of punishing pregnant women for harm to their fetuses. New York University Review of Law and Social Change, 16(2), 277-319.
Resolution On Male Violence Against Women
WHEREAS, violence against women is a major cause of reduced quality of life, distress, injury and death for women and has serious secondary effects for families, communities, and the economy;
WHEREAS, violence against women takes many forms, including battering, sexual harassment, and rape;
WHEREAS, more than one in five adult women experience at least one physical assault by a partner during adulthood; as many as one of every two women are affected by sexual harassment over the course of their working lives; and approximately one in eight women have experienced a sexual assault in their lifetimes.
WHEREAS, research reveals a high prevalence of acute and chronic mental and physical health consequences resulting from violence against women;
WHEREAS, being assaulted by or witnessing assaults toward family members in childhood or adolescence increases the likelihood of mental health problems, substance abuse, and involvement in abusive relationships for both women and men;
WHEREAS, gender and gender relations play critical roles in directing male violence toward women;
WHEREAS, cultural norms and expectations play critical roles in promoting and shaping male violence against women and in determining the consequences to the victim and the responses of society;
WHEREAS, understanding male violence against women requires examining the power inequalities between men and women, including legal, economic, and physical power inequalities;
WHEREAS, women living in poverty are at especially high risk for all types of violence-particularly severe and life threatening assaults;
WHEREAS, research focused on violence against ethnic minority, poor and older women, lesbians, and women with disabilities is limited;
WHEREAS, psychologists, as researchers, service providers, and policy advocates, have important roles to play in educating the public and preventing and treating violence against women;
WHEREAS, levels of assaultive and lethal violence against women remain high, despite two decades of increased awareness and legislation;
THEREFORE, Be it resolved that the American Psychological Association:
1. Support public policy initiatives in research, prevention and intervention areas, including legal and legislative reform.
2. Support legislative efforts that seek to redress gender-based power imbalances, including legislation on civil rights, dependent care and family support, and pay equity.
3. Explore avenues to improve training of psychologists to recognize and treat victims of violence and to conduct research on prevention and intervention with the women themselves, their children and perpetrators.
4. Explore interventions for children and adolescents who have been exposed to family violence and who are therefore at risk for violent behavior or victimization.
5. Explore avenues to disseminate materials available on violence against women including those of the APA Task Force on Male Violence Against Women to policy makers, professional communities, church and community groups, educational institutions and the general public.
6. Explore ways to increase public and private funding for research on violence against women.
7. Explore avenues for showcasing, in the Association's publications, research on male violence against women so as to increase the extent to which it is viewed as within the mainstream of psychological concerns.
8. Explore avenues for greater collaboration with legal, medical, and other professional disciplines on international, national, regional, and local levels to prevent violence against women.
9. Explore psychoeducational and sociocultural interventions designed to change male objectification of women.
1. Statistics taken from the Report of the Male Violence Against Women Task Force: Koss, M.P., Goodman, L.A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L.F., Keita, G.P., & Russo, N.F. (1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work , and in the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Justification for APA Resolution on Male Violence Against Women
Relevance to psychology and psychologists and importance to psychology or to society as a whole
Male-perpetrated violence is a major cause of fear, distress, injury, and even death for women. Such violence crosses the lines of ethnicity, economic status, and age…During the past two decades, scholarly, public, and policy attention to this social problem has increased dramatically, and a number of important national policy reports have identified violence against women as a critical economic, criminal justice, and public health issue (American Psychological Association Task Force on Male Violence Against Women, 1994). By the most conservative estimates, almost 1,000,000 women experience violent victimization by an intimate each year. In 1993, roughly 1,300 women in the United States were reported to have been murdered by partners or former partners, and this reported total is likely an underestimate since the relationship between victim and perpetrator is often not identified (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1998).
Male violence against women remains an enormous problem in the United States. Devastating consequences have been documented for women and their families as well as for society. More than one in eight adult women in the United States is raped or sexually assaulted (National Victim Center, 1992), a minimum of 22% (over one-fifth) report experiencing physical assault by an intimate partner (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1996), and close to half of all women are affected by sexual harassment during the course of their working lives.
Researchers report that women visiting primary care providers who have been raped experience more symptoms of physical illness and practice more negative health behaviors, including alcohol use and smoking, than nonvictimized women. They also visit their physicians more than twice as often (Koss, Koss, & Woodruff, 1991). Approximately one fifth of all women using emergency surgical services are suffering from the physical sequelae of partner abuse (Browne, 1993). Murders by intimates account for 30% of all female murders (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1998). Gender-based victimization accounts for almost one in every five healthy years of life lost to women aged 15 to 44 in established market economies (Heise, with Pitanguy, & Germain, 1993).
Victimized women suffer from depression, substance abuse, anxiety, and low self-esteem. Many exhibit negative cognitive and emotional aftereffects and consistently show among the highest rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) associated with any type of traumatic event. Accordingly, PTSD is also a common diagnosis for many victims of violence. Violence against women has economic as well as psychological and physical costs. For example, the U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board (1995) estimated the cost of sexual harassment to the government over the course of the 2-year reporting period of their study (from April 1992 through April 1994) at $327.1 million in job turnover, sick leave, individual productivity, and workgroup productivity. The same study also found that nearly 21% of sexual harassment victims reported suffering a decline in productivity. The average rape in the United States is estimated to cost $92,100 in tangible expenses, emotional distress, and lost quality of life (Miller, Cohen, & Wiersema, 1994).
Psychologists have been actively involved in research and prevention efforts, individual and group counseling, and psychotherapy of both victims and perpetrators. The American Psychological Association organized two task forces to address this important issue. In 1994, the Male Violence Against Women Task Force issued, No Safe Haven: Male Violence Against Women, at Home, at Work, and in the Community. In 1996, the Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family issued Violence and the Family. Both document the pervasiveness and devastating consequences of violence against women and in the family, as well as what psychology can do to help.
The APA Task Force on Male Violence Against Women noted that violence
has multiple causes, but it remains fundamentally a learned behavior that is shaped by sociocultural norms and role expectations that support female subordination and perpetuate male violence. Preventing violence against women, among other things, requires that interventions focus on cultural conceptions of the masculine gender role. Psychologists have a long history of expertise in attitude and behavior change and have a critical role in violence prevention. Likewise, psychologists' expertise in program evaluation, individual and group counseling, and psychotherapy continue to be essential in efforts to prevent and treat violence.
This resolution focuses only on male-perpetrated violence against women. The confluence of individual, social, cultural, and institutional factors that shape relationships between men and women and contribute to the problem of male violence against women is complex and requires specific prevention, research, and intervention attention.
Quality and quantity of psychological data and conceptualization relevant to it
Psychologists and psychological research have contributed greatly to the knowledge base on male violence against women. Psychologists and other mental health practitioners have been active in developing the policy agenda that now governs funding for services and research, creating and evaluating violence prevention programs, and providing treatment to women suffering the emotional aftereffects of intimate violence, which often include PTSD. Psychologists also treated perpetrators of male violence and are involved in research and intervention efforts.
Psychologists have been involved in the investigation and treatment of violence against women for decades and have amassed a large body of high quality psychological research. While this work has been critical, the problem is far from solved, and more work is needed. This resolution addresses some of the needs identified in the APA Male Violence Against Women Task Force report and seeks to respond to the critical need for organized psychology to take a leadership position in addressing these issues for psychologists. These should include, for example, training needs for psychologists, better data collection methods, and increased funding for psychological research and prevention efforts. Because the National Institute for Mental Health no longer has a violence branch, and because the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Department of Justice now provide the majority of funding for violence research, psychology needs to focus increased attention on these agencies where the critical importance of the involvement of psychology may be less well understood.
Likely degree of consensus
Consensus on this resolution from all sections of APA is highly likely. The association has focused attention on violence, and there seems to be a widespread acceptance of organized psychology's critical role in addressing issues of violence.
Likelihood of the resolution having a constructive impact on public opinion or policy
The APA has already been actively involved in major policy initiatives on violence against women, for example, the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) and VAWA II. Additionally, APA submitted a Brief of Amicus Curiae to the Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Teresa Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc., a sexual harassment case. The Supreme Court decision quoted substantially from the APA brief. These and other initiatives demonstrate APA's ongoing commitment to the prevention of violence against women. However, the availability of a resolution on violence against women would more decisively show our commitment to addressing these issues to collaborators at the federal, state and foundation level as well as legal, medical, and other professional disciplines and community organizations.
References:
American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family. (1996). Violence and the family. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Browne, A. (1993). Violence against women by male partners: Prevalence, outcomes, and policy implications. American Psychologist, 48, 1077-1087.
Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1998, March). Violence by intimates (NCJ167237). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Heise, L, with Pitanguy, J., & Germain, A. (1993). Violence against women: The hidden health burden. Discussion paper prepared for the World Bank. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
Koss, M.P., Goodman, L.A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L.F., Keita, G.P., & Russo, N.F. (1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Koss, M.P., Koss, P., & Woodruff, W. (1991). Deleterious effects of criminal victimization on women's health and medical utilization. Archives of Internal Medicine, 151, 342-357.
Miller, T.R., Cohen, M.A., & Wiersema, B. (1996, February). Victim costs and consequences: A new look. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
National Victim Center. (1992). Rape in America: A report to the nation. Arlington, VA: Author.
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (1996). Violence against women: Preliminary findings from the Violence and Threats Against Women in America Survey. Denver: Center for Policy Research.
U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. (1995). Sexual Harassment in the Federal Workplace: Trends, Progress, Continuing Challenges. Washington, D.C.: Author.
