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Advancing the Science: A Psychologists Guide to Advocacy
Description: The Science Directorate and Public Policy Office produced the following 'Guide to Participation in Federal Policymaking.' This Guide is designed to encourage greater political participation. Taking part in the political life of our country is a right and a privilege too often exercised by a minority of Americans, the actions of whom have a profound effect on the personal and professional lives of us all. It is our hope that you will use this Guide to develop and maintain contact with your U.S. Senators and Representative as a citizen and advocate for psychological science. The Guide will inform you about how to do this -- in a way that will not require you to learn all the subtleties of public policymaking or to make it your full-time job.
APA maintains a vigorous and effective science advocacy program, and your direct contact with Congress as a constituent is a vital component of that program. Your special training and expertise uniquely qualify you to contribute to the development of science policy, and to the reshaping of political attitudes toward the science of psychology.
CONTACT: Science
DATE: 1994
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Introduction
- APA Advocacy on Behalf of Science
- The Short Course in Legislative Process
- * Understanding the Legislative Process
- * Committees and Subcommittees That Affect Psychological Research & Training
- * How a Legislator Decides How to Vote
- * Regulatory Process
- Effective Communications
- * Identifying and Locating Your Legislators
- * Understanding the Role of Congressional Staff
- * Writing a Constituent Letter
- * Making a Constituent Telephone Call
- * Meeting With Your Legislator
- * Inviting Your Legislator to Visit
- * Understanding the Legislative Process
Conclusion
Glossary
Acronyms
PREFACE
The American Psychological Association (APA) science advocacy program is the largest and most visible national presence advocating on behalf of the science of psychology. The program is administered by government relations and public policy professionals in the Public Policy Office at the APA Central Office in Washington, D.C. Its purposes include:
- Influencing national science and health policy and funding decision-making on behalf of the science of psychology;
- Informing Members of Congress and their staffs about psychological research and its relevance to federal policy and to society;
- Strengthening the voice of psychology at the federal/regulatory level; and
- Informing APA members and involving them as scientist-advocates.
INTRODUCTION
The American Psychological Association (APA) Public Policy Office and Science Directorate are pleased to provide you with this 'Guide to Participation in Federal Policymaking.' This Guide is designed to encourage you toward greater political participation. Taking part in the political life of our country is a right and a privilege too often exercised by a minority of Americans, the actions of whom have a profound effect on the personal and professional lives of us all. It is our hope that you will use this Guide to develop and maintain contact with your U.S. Senators and Representative as a citizen and advocate for psychological science. The Guide will inform you about how to do this -- in a way that will not require you to learn all the subtleties of public policymaking or to make it your full-time job. APA maintains a vigorous and effective science advocacy program, and your direct contact with Congress as a constituent is a vital component of that program. Your special training and expertise uniquely qualify you to contribute to the development of science policy, and to the reshaping of political attitudes toward the science of psychology.
We hope that you will use the information in this Guide to support our shared goals. It is important that you coordinate your grassroots activities with our office to assure maximum effectiveness and complementary legislative strategies. Expert staff are available to work with you. Please contact me, or any member of the APA Public Policy Office listed on the back cover, and work with us to enhance federal support for psychology and to promote psychological research, teaching, and scientific applications.
I. APA ADVOCACY ON BEHALF OF SCIENCE
The American Psychological Association (APA), focused on expanding the recognition of psychology's scientific contributions and achievements, numbers among its primary objectives the enhancement of federal support for psychology and the promotion of psychological research, teaching, and scientific applications.
In support of that goal, APA sponsors an advocacy program that is the largest and most visible national presence advocating on behalf of the science of psychology. Why advocate for psychological science at the federal level? Because programs passed by Congress affect every APA member in every State. For each APA member, that impact takes shape in a unique way. Congress decides, for example, if, as a nation, we will fund scientific research. Congress decides something about the nature of that research and about the level at which it will be funded. And Congress decides whether or not research will involve the use of animals, or whether certain types of questions can be asked of human participants in research. The APA Public Policy Office staff work to ensure that Congress makes informed choices when answering such critical questions.
APA is called upon by Congress to offer advice in sensitive policy areas that profoundly affect the ways in which psychologists do their work. For example, the APA advises Congressional decision makers on difficult and often contentious legislative and regulatory issues such as the use of animals in research, testing and assessment, women's health, and research on human sexual behavior. Through its Public Policy Office, APA maintains a close liaison with the constantly changing decision makers on Capitol Hill, working with them as they formulate legislation affecting psychological research and training. The advocacy program also maintains an important liaison between APA and other scientific societies, organizations, and coalitions to advance common legislative interests.
Of perhaps foremost importance to our members, APA science advocacy works to increase support for federally funded psychological research. The federal government has a tradition of generosity in support of science, but the behavioral and social sciences have had to struggle for an appropriate share of federal research resources. The competition for federal support is vigorous, and the APA science advocacy program makes the case for psychology to Congress.
On behalf of science, APA:
- Actively advocates on behalf of the science of psychology for increased federal support of psychological research, develops opportunities to present testimony before House and Senate appropriations committees, and gains research funding increases for key federal agencies that support psychological science;
- Sponsors the Congressional Site Visit Program, taking key Congressional staff on tours of federally-funded psychological research labs. These trips give Congressional decision makers a clearer idea of what psychological research is, how it is conducted, and why it is important. Trips to familiarize Capitol Hill with psychology have included a focus on the use of animals in research, education and learning, human factors research, substance abuse, health and behavior, and prevention/community intervention research;
- Sponsors a Congressional Briefing Series as a mechanism for providing brief tutorials for Congressional staff on policy-relevant psychological research issues. Capitol Hill briefings have highlighted research developments in the areas of health and behavior, aging, women and depression, child day care issues, and substance abuse;
- Increases the number of psychologists involved in federal science policymaking by taking APA members to Capitol Hill to testify before Congress and to meet with legislators, and by nominating preeminent psychologists for appointment to national science advisory bodies;
- Develops public policy agendas, for example, working with the National Foundation for Brain Research on a brain and behavior research policy agenda for the Congressionally designated 'Decade of the Brain'; and
- Brings top leaders of federal agencies and Congress together with APA science leaders, to strengthen our partnerships and tackle critical issues of concern to research and psychologists.
II. THE SHORT COURSE IN LEGISLATIVE PROCESS
Understanding the Legislative Process
This section was adapted and reprinted, with permission, from 'Make Your Voice Heard', a publication of AARP/VOTE, The Voter Education Program of the American Association of Retired Persons.Any legislator can introduce a piece of legislation, which is known as a bill. A bill is introduced in a given chamber of a legislature, such as the House of Representatives or the Senate. A bill is given a number by the clerk of the chamber in which it is introduced, such as 'S. 1' for the first bill introduced in the Senate, or 'H.R. 92' for the 92nd bill introduced in the House of Representatives.
The bill is then almost always referred to the appropriate committee for consideration. The committee system is intended to provide specialized consideration of bills covering a specific topic. By concentrating on one area of government, the members of the committee and their staff become experts on the topics within their jurisdictions. For example, the House Science, Space and Technology Committee has jurisdiction over the National Science Foundation (NSF), and members of the Committee and their staff are informed on NSF-related issues.
Most committees have subcommittees, which focus on a subset of areas within the jurisdiction of the full committee. The bill is referred to the appropriate subcommittee, where hearings may be held. Interested organizations and individuals can testify at these hearings, stating the reasons for their support or opposition, and suggesting ways in which the bill can be improved. Committee staff may then draft modifications to the bill.
After hearings, the subcommittee may mark up the bill, a process where changes, called amendments, may be made to the legislation. The bill is then reported to the full committee, where yet another markup may take place.
The full committee may then vote to report out the bill to the full chamber of the legislative body.
In the U.S. House of Representatives, most legislation is referred to the Rules Committee after being reported out from a full committee. The Rules Committee votes to give the bill a rule, which sets the time limits for debate and the manner in which amendments to the bill will be accepted. If a bill can be amended by the full legislative body, it is given an open rule. If it cannot be amended, it is said to have been given a closed rule. These are the basic parameters of the rule process. More detailed rulings do exist and are used occasionally.
The legislative chamber's leadership, such as the Speaker of the House in the U.S. House of Representatives, or the Senate Majority Leader in the U.S. Senate, has significant power over the scheduling of votes on a bill before the full chamber. The leadership may decide to move action on the bill quickly, or they may try to keep the legislation from ever being voted upon, depending on the politics surrounding the piece of legislation.
Once the bill reaches the full chamber, it is debated on the floor of the chamber by all interested legislators. If amendments are permitted, members can propose amendments and request votes on them. Finally, the bill, as amended, is voted on and passes, or fails to pass, out of that chamber of the legislature.
In the U.S. Congress the bill is then sent to the other chamber of the legislature. For example, a bill passed in the U.S. House of Representatives is then sent to the Senate for its consideration. Generally, the same process of legislation is repeated in this other chamber. The bill is referred to committee and subcommittee, hearings and markups are held, and it is then reported out to the full chamber for a vote.
By the time the bill is voted on in the second chamber, it has usually been modified by amendments, and is somewhat different than the bill passed by the first chamber. Thus the bill must now be referred to a conference committee, made up of several members of each chamber, where differences between the two versions are eliminated by compromise and reconciliation. This committee then issues a conference report, containing the bill with its agreed upon compromises, and is sent to both chambers for final approval.
Once both chambers have passed the identical legislation, the bill is then sent to the President for his or her signature into law. The signature of the chief executive is generally the final step in enactment of a new law. If the President does not approve of the bill, he or she may veto the legislation, and send it back to the legislature.
If a bill receives a veto, it will not become law unless each chamber of the legislature votes (by a two-thirds margin) to override the veto. If the legislature overrides the veto, then the bill gains passage and becomes law.
Once a bill becomes law, it usually requires funding as well. In the process described above legislation is authorized. A bill is passed establishing a program or function, setting standards, time limits, reporting requirements, and the maximum dollar amount that may be spent on the program or function.
Next, a different piece of legislation funds the program or function by appropriating monies for the implementation of the law.
Consequently, to both create and fund legislation, two different bills may need to be steered through the legislative process.
Single copies (up to six items) of the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives documents mentioned in this section, including bills, committee reports, conference reports, and public laws, can be obtained at no charge by sending a return address label and written request to:
Senate Document Room
House Document Room
The House of Representatives Document Room will provide information on status and availability of House legislative documents, and will accept telephone orders. Call the House Document Room at 202/225-3456. The Senate Document Room will provide information on the status and availability of legislative documents. Call the Senate Document Room at 202/224-7860.
Committees and Subcommittees That Affect Psychological Research & Training
U.S. House of Representatives
In the House of Representatives, authorizations for most Public Health Service (PHS) agencies, including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration (ADAMHA), fall within the jurisdiction of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce. More specifically, the Committee's Subcommittee on Health and the Environment develops the NIH and ADAMHA reauthorizing legislation, along with many other measures of interest to psychology. Once authorized, funding for most PHS agencies must be approved by the House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Labor-Health and Human Services- Education. This Subcommittee divides its allocation of the overall federal budget among the nation's health, education, and social welfare programs.
Authorization for the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Veterans Administration (VA), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) falls within the jurisdiction of the House Science, Space and Technology Committee. Once authorized, funding for NSF, VA, and NASA, as well as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is reauthorized on a statute by statute basis by multiple committees, must be approved by the House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on VA, HUD and Independent Agencies. This Subcommittee, too, must make decisions about how to share funds amongst diverse programs including the nation's housing, veterans, environment, space, and basic research programs.
The Animal Welfare Act is under the jurisdiction of the House Agriculture Committee, Subcommittee on Department Operations, Research and Foreign Agriculture. The animal inspection programs, run by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal, Plant Health Inspection Service, (APHIS), are funded by the House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Rural Development, Agriculture and related Agencies. A very small part of our national agriculture budget is directed, through APHIS, to conduct inspections to ensure that scientists, farmers, and animal handlers are meeting the requirements of the Animal Welfare Act.
The research and training activities of the Department of Defense fall under the jurisdiction of the House Committee on Armed Services. Once authorized, funding decisions regarding these activities are made by the House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Defense.
U.S. Senate
In the Senate, authorizations for most Public Health Service (PHS) agencies, including the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Alcohol, Drug Abuse and Mental Health Administration (ADAMHA), fall within the jurisdiction of the Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources. Most matters concerning PHS agencies are handled at the full committee level and are not referred to a subcommittee. Once authorized, funding for most PHS agencies must be approved by the Senate Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Labor-Health and Human Services-Education and Related Agencies.Authorization for the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Veterans Administration (VA), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) falls within the jurisdiction of the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. Once authorized, funding for NSF, VA, NASA, as well as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is reauthorized on a statute by statute basis by multiple committees, must be approved by the Senate Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on VA, HUD and Independent Agencies.
The Animal Welfare Act is under the jurisdiction of the Senate Agriculture Committee, Subcommittee on Agriculture Research and General Legislation. The animal inspection programs, run by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal, Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), are funded by the Senate Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, and Related Agencies.
The research and training activities of the Department of Defense fall under the jurisdiction of the Senate Committee on Armed Services. Once authorized, funding decisions regarding these activities are made by the Senate Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee on Defense.
Oversight, Special and Select Committees
In addition to authorizing committees and appropriating committees, there are two other kinds of committees: Oversight Committees and Special or Select Committees. Oversight committees are charged by Congress with monitoring the administration of laws by the Executive Branch. The Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs and the House Committee on Government Operations are oversight committees. In the House of Representatives, for example, the Committee on Government Operations has jurisdiction over the administrative issue of whether or not to raise the Environmental Protection Agency to cabinet-level status.
Special or Select Committees are charged with oversight in a particular subject area. They have no legislative authority, but can still be influential because of their special expertise. Examples include the Senate Special Committee on Aging and the House Select Committee on Children, Youth and Families.
How a Legislator Decides How to Vote
Here is how one lawmaker, U.S. Representative Lee Hamilton of Indiana, describes the process by which he and his colleagues decide how to cast their votes on legislation. This summary was extracted from the Congressional Record, and reprinted with the permission of AARP/VOTE.
'A question that has intrigued me is how various Members of Congress decide how to vote. Members cast about 400 votes a year on the most difficult and controversial issues on the national agenda. My impression is that in deciding how to vote, Members weigh three goals: they want to make good policy, gain respect inside Congress, and get re-elected.'
Representative Hamilton then goes on to explain the major forces that mold his thinking on a given issue. Notice which he feels is the most important:
Constituents
'Constituents are the most important influence on a Member's voting decision. Whether Members are agents of their constituents' wishes or free to exercise their own judgment is a classic question in a representative democracy. But all Members ask themselves on each vote where their constituents stand on the issue. On those issues where the constituency expresses strong preferences, the Member is almost certain to favor them.'Colleagues
'Other Members of Congress are important sources of information because, as professional politicians, they will tailor their advice to a Member's needs; they are often well-informed on the issue; and they are available at the time of the vote. Members also pay special attention to the other Members of their state delegation, because they share common interests and problems.'Lobbies
'Interest groups are neither the most nor least important influence on Congress. Lobbyists can help or hinder a Member's work. They can provide members with easily digested information and innovative proposals.'The Executive Branch
'The President is, in many respects, the chief legislator. With his excellent sources of information, his ability to initiate legislation, to appeal to all Americans, and to set the legislative agenda, the President has formidable power in the legislative process.'Party Leadership
'Political party leadership has much less effect on Members' decisions. Members of Congress do not hear often from their party leaders about specific votes on legislation. They do hear often from the leadership of their party in the Congress, i.e., the Speaker and the Majority and Minority leaders.'Media
'News media may have their greatest effect on Congress as agenda setters. By focusing attention on a particular issue, they can get the American people and the Congress to deal with it. In considering a vote, Members must anticipate how that vote will be played by the media.'Staff
'It is a mistake to underestimate the importance of Congressional staff in the legislative process. Because of Members' hectic schedules, they rely on staff to help them evaluate legislation. Today's staffers usually have a good appreciation of political processes, but their main strength is substantive technical knowledge.''Members of Congress vote several times every legislative day on diverse and complex issues. Usually they have more information than they can assimilate, so they need and seek help. It is then that decision-making becomes a very personal matter. When the voting clock is running down, the Member must make a decision. The Member knows that in our democracy he or she alone will be held accountable for it.'
Regulatory Process
After a bill is passed by Congress and becomes law, it is referred to the appropriate executive branch agency for the development of implementing regulations. While laws outline the general intent of Congress, regulations spell out the specific details of how the law will be applied. For laws of interest to scientific psychology, regulations are developed by government agencies including the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department of Agriculture, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Office of Management and Budget, and others.For example, in 1985, Congress passed amendments to 'The Animal Welfare Act,' a bill to ensure the humane treatment of animals in science, agriculture, and commerce. The new law was then referred to the Department of Agriculture for the development of implementing regulations. In 1986, the Department published a call for public comment in the Federal Register, a publication for the purpose of notifying the public about executive branch activities, soliciting the views of the public on how this new law would be best implemented. The Department later developed its first proposed rule, signaling an opportunity for the public to comment specifically on the federal agency's plan. The agency then reviewed the outside comments including, in this case, the ones developed by the APA Committee on Animal Research and Ethics (CARE). This process may be repeated several times, with the agency extending comment periods or publishing interim final rules, before a final rule is published. The final rule may or may not reflect public opinion.
II. EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATIONS
Identifying and Locating Your Legislators
The first step in effective communications with Congress is determining the right person to contact. It is generally most effective to contact your own legislator -- the woman or man who represents your Congressional District. As your elected official, this is the person who represents you and who must be sensitive to your views. Legislators maintain both a Washington, D.C. office and a District office located back home. APA can help identify and locate your legislator, or you can check the blue pages of your phone book or call your local political party office.There may be occasions, however, when it will be appropriate and helpful to your purpose to contact other members of Congress. For example, when the Chair of a Congressional Committee wishes to monitor broad public opinion at a critical point in the legislative process, or when you have special expertise in a specific area in which a Congressional Committee or Subcommittee is developing policy, your communication with them can be important. The APA science policy staff are in the best position to advise you on such exceptions. Contact us if you are interested in developing communications beyond your own Representative and Senators.
Once you know whom to contact, you can obtain his or her Washington Office telephone number, or be connected with the Washington office directly, by calling the U.S. Capitol Switchboard at 202/224-3121. The Washington offices can give you addresses and telephone numbers for local District offices.
Understanding the Role of Congressional Staff
Whether calling, writing, or visiting a Congressional office, it is important to understand the role of your Representative's or Senator's staff members. Most Congressional offices will have a Legislative Assistant, or LA, handling your content area of interest. Many Congressional staff members are recent college graduates and so may appear relatively inexperienced. However, each Senator and Representative relies heavily on his or her staff to be knowledgeable and informed on the issues. Because the information and advice they provide is often effective in shaping the legislator's opinion on an issue, any time spent discussing your views with them will be a good investment.In addition to the staff members in the legislator's personal office, the committees and subcommittees of Congress also have professional staff members. These staff members are often more focused in their responsibilities. While a personal staff member usually has multiple subject areas of responsibility, for example, covering science issues, defense, budget, veteran's issues, and environmental issues, a committee staff member is often able to specialize in a small number of areas and to acquire expertise in them. These staff members work for the legislator who chairs the Committee or Subcommittee or who serves as its Ranking Minority Member.
Staff members in legislator's personal District offices serve still a different function. These staff members take care of the lawmaker's appointments and appearances in the District. They also serve as caseworkers who help to resolve the problems of the District's citizens as they relate to federal programs. For example, a District office caseworker can help find out why a social security recipient's check is late. Usually members of the