Recommendations for Working Families

How do women and men negotiate their obligations at home and at work when the two are in conflict? This section draws on the research literature to suggest ways that work and home can become allies for working adults.

Acknowledge Positive Outcomes Working Mothers Provide
Research shows that having a mother who works outside the home is not harmful for children. Although well-publicized research reported a connection between early center-based child care and children's negative behavior, the vast majority of children are doing fine, and most research shows that having a working mother may lead to positive outcomes for children, including increased academic achievement and fewer behavior problems, especially when the mother wants to work and has sufficient support at home and at work. There is an emerging consensus that effects are more likely to be negative when the caretaking parent's (usually the mother) work schedule is erratic and unpredictable; the hours are long; and she faces other significant stressors, such as poor health, poverty, and little control over work-related events and little support at home for working. In other words, children, families, and work suffer when the recommendations suggested by our best evidence are ignored.

The work status of a parent per se is not as critical a determinant for child development as having a supportive home environment, warm, loving parent or other adult, and avoiding the negative correlates and consequences of poverty. Study after study has shown strong, long-lasting, positive effects for children in center-based care, especially when the quality of care is high and the hours spent in care are not overly long. In the words of the leading researchers in this area: "A major policy implication of these findings is that universal, high-quality, center-based care seems likely to be beneficial to all types of participating children" (Hill, Waldfogel, & Brooks-Gunn, 2002, p. 622).

There are also benefits for adults whose mothers were employed when they were growing up. Young men and women who grew up with mothers who were employed outside the home have more positive attitudes toward dual-earner families and are more likely to believe that husbands and wives should have equal responsibility for household work (Riggio & Desrochers, 2004).

Acknowledge Positive Outcomes Involved Working Fathers Provide
Children with involved fathers experience better outcomes along multiple dimensions. They are less likely to exhibit behavioral problems, engage in risky behaviors (such as drug, alcohol, and cigarette use), or drop out of school, and they have better school attendance, higher college aspirations, and are more likely to become compassionate adults (according to a 26-year longitudinal study). Children also benefit from the additional income provided by working fathers, especially when the additional income moves the family out of poverty. Men show gains in reported life satisfaction and overall happiness when they are involved in the lives of their children. Fathers should be actively involved in the lives of their children.

Lessen Parental Work Stress
Parental work stress can create difficulties for families, including strained marital relationships and parent-child relationships. Stress and work overload are most likely to have a negative impact on employed mothers, especially when mothers are expected to accomplish the majority of household work. Support from husbands or others, great equity of household duties, and effective time management by both parents lead to less stress and greater psychological well-being for parents, which lead to more satisfying relationships within families overall. All of the research supports equity in division of household tasks for working families as a way of reducing stress.

Workers who work nights, overtime, and have high job stress are more likely to report health problems. Shift workers are at greater risk than other workers for accidents and making errors at work, probably because they are sleepy; shift work can also aggravate health conditions such as heart disease and digestive disorders (Rosa and Colligan, 1997). Working mothers (and presumably fathers with primary child care) lose the equivalent of one night's sleep per week. It is best to match work schedules to care responsibilities, arranging to be at home in the afternoons and evenings when children and teens are still in the home. Working parents experience less stress, less work-family conflict, and higher-quality family relationships when work environments and supervisors are supportive of working families. It may be worth changing jobs to find a supportive supervisor and work schedule that fits your family.

Women and men in jobs combining little skill discretion, job control, and self-direction and supervisor and coworker support with high demands are more likely to be depressed. Work-family conflict also correlates with higher levels of depressive symptoms, including among women with difficulties arranging, managing, and paying for child care. When possible, people should take action to obtain adequate insurance, including mental health coverage, and discuss ways to gain control over reasonable aspects of their jobs.

Recognize the Benefits of Combining Work and Family Roles
Combining work and family roles can contribute to the well-being of men and women. This occurs when individuals successfully apply a resource acquired in one role to a task in the other role. For example, parents may develop interpersonal skills through interactions with their children that they subsequently apply to their work role, thereby enhancing their managerial effectiveness. Conversely, employees learn skills or develop perspectives at work that can enable them to be more effective as parents. And, the income earned at work is beneficial to an employee's family. It is important for organizations to recognize the value of having employees with an active life outside of work. Although the majority of working parents report that they are "squeezed for time," there are benefits to paid employment for all adults--when work pays. These include feeling good about successes and reduced depression, with the greatest gains for those whose families are moved out of poverty. Even though most families work to pay the bills, surveys show that the majority would continue to work even if they could afford not to because of the psychological benefits of enhanced self-esteem, the supportive social network, and increased income. Work and family can offer mutual benefits with positive and reinforcing effects that create win-win situations for families and employers.

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