Role of Psychology and APA in Dismantling Systemic Racism Against People of Color in U.S.

Historically, racism has been used to divide the public, fuel racial violence, and reduce support for health care, economic, and education policy that would benefit the well-being of society (Blacksher & Valles, 2021; Cui & Worrell, 2019; McGhee, 2021). American psychology, including APA, has been complicit in actions that have perpetuated racism. Therefore, an important aspect of APA’s continued work in understanding how psychology can meaningfully contribute to disarming and dismantling individual and systemic racism, is to first acknowledge that racism has had a historical underpinning in White supremacy and in supporting structures of White privilege institutionally and structurally for centuries.

The purpose of this resolution is to identify psychology’s role in helping to expose, understand, and ultimately dismantle racism that is operating across all levels in each of the following systems of society—education, science, health care, work and economic opportunities, criminal justice, early childhood development, and government and public policy, as addressed below, while acknowledging that systemic racism also has impact beyond these sectors.

For the first time, APA and American psychology are systematically and intentionally examining, acknowledging, and charting a path forward to address their roles in racism. At the same time, this is an insufficient response with respect to both psychology’s responsibility and its potential to heal. In short, this resolution is in itself necessary but not sufficient. The resolution possesses moral legitimacy only as one step in an ongoing process, not as an endpoint. Not later than the Council of Representatives’ second meeting of 2022, and with advice from the Task Force on Strategies to Eradicate Racism, Discrimination, and Hate and other subject matter experts within and outside the Association, APA’s CEO will develop a plan to prioritize, operationalize, and ensure accountability for achieving the goals of the resolutions set forth below.

This resolution also acknowledges the complexity of ethnoracial dialogues, especially in the United States (U.S.). While the limited and forced federal categorization and definition of ethnicity and race exist, the minoritized experiences of individuals and communities facing systemic racism cannot be easily and plainly described. For this reason, in this resolution, “ethnic and racial minorities,” “ethnically and racially diverse individuals,” “people of color,” and other terms are interchangeably used while also mentioning specific ethnic and racial groups. Terms such as “people of color” are also used as inclusive language for biracial and multiracial individuals who must navigate multiple race-related systemic challenges. The resolution also warns that a monolithic approach to understanding ethnically and racially categorized people without appreciating the diversity-within factors and intersectional identities in itself is a form of systemic racism that denies various unique challenges and strengths that exist within each ethnic and racial group.

Whereas, Racism at every level permeates the landscape of education in the United States (U.S.), from housing and policies that determine where children are zoned to attend school in prekindergarten through postsecondary and lifelong learning, to the detriment of the academic achievement, self-concept, persistence, and success of students of color (Baumgartner & Johnson-Bailey, 2010; Burt et al., 2018; Sosina & Weathers, 2019; Voight et al., 2015; Wong et al., 2003);

Whereas, Access to quality education, affirming and safe education environments, and positive academic support impact not only people of color but also the larger society, given that attainment of education positively influences economic, vocational, physical health, psychological health, community, and social well-being (Gage et al., 2019; Krezmien et al., 2006; Sullivan et al, 2014);

Whereas, Education holds the promise of personal and communal well-being for students of color (Worrell et al., 2020), but that the history of racism has consistently led to defunding, underresourcing, and police presence in schools, specifically depriving people of color and affecting their job procurement, job experiences, and other educational outcomes (Freeman, 2021; Metzl, 2019);

Whereas, Teachers of color continue to be underrepresented in U.S. K–12 schools, which can negatively impact the self-image of students of color in predominantly White educational spaces (Clark & Clark, 1947; Gaias et al., 2021; Jordan & Hernandez-Reif, 2009; Kohli, 2008; Mabokela & Madeson, 2003; Okonofua et al., 2021);

Whereas, Students of color are increasingly enrolled in majority-underserved, high-poverty schools and school segregation is associated with significant racial disparities in a) per-pupil school funding, b) teacher qualifications and experience, c) access to honors and Advanced Placement courses, and d) access to health and mental health services in schools, among other disparities, and therefore represents a structural form of racism that is foundational to racial and ethnic inequities in educational attainment (Graves & Blake, 2016; Sosina & Weathers, 2019; Teranishi, 2010);

Whereas, Asian American and Pacific Islander children in educational settings are harmed by the “model minority” myth, which suggests that these students do not experience educational or mental health challenges and homogenizes very diverse Asian American populations (Leong & Lau, 2001; Luther et al., 2021). In addition, increased racism and xenophobia directed against Asian American and Pacific Islander children may negatively impact their self-image and mental health, potentially impairing their educational attainment. Immigrant Asian American and Pacific Islander children may have also experienced trauma due to war and conflict in their countries of origin, which may also affect their educational attainment (American Psychological Association, 2009, 2013);

Whereas, Previously unexamined ethnocentric curricular and cocurricular activities need to be carefully reviewed and addressed for the perpetuation of systemically racist beliefs in education policies (Brown & Brown, 2010; Harper, 2012; Hyland, 2005);

Whereas, Individual interactions and everyday experiences of students of color with their peers and educators should be respected, and not considered a cultural enrichment to White educators and students (Lewis, 2003; Modica, 2015; Perez Huber & Cueva, 2012; Sera & Wall, 2021; Sue et al., 2007; Young, 2011);

Whereas, Educators should strive to provide inclusive learning experiences for all students, but they may fail to see the impacts of negative linguistic stereotyping and biases toward students of color, in contrast to affirmation of White students from Western and European backgrounds when both groups experience English-proficiency challenges and present with accents (Blanchard & Muller, 2015; Byrnes et al., 1997; Palmer & Eun-Young, 2005). Such discrepancies of treatment and reactions toward certain heritage languages can lead to a sense of shame and an expectation to assimilate to the White American norm, further systematically oppressing students of color with linguistic diversities. (Flores et al., 2015; Gándara et al., 2004; Lippi-Green, 1997; Matthews & López, 2019; Ready & Wright, 2011; Tatum, 1987);

Whereas, Discriminatory policies and practices (forms of institutional racism), the inappropriate application of psychometric tests and assessment instruments, and teacher biases have prevailed in the overrepresentation of children of color classified in: special education; identified with behavioral problems; subjected to suspensions, expulsions, and placements in alternative schools; and associated with low graduation rates (Downey & Pribesh, 2004; Fulks et al., 2020; Gilliam et al., 2016; Girvan et al., 2019; Losen & Martinez, 2013);

Whereas, Education has been used as a weapon of oppression against people of color within the U.S. domestic context, including boarding schools designed to strip Indigenous Americans of their language and culture, and segregated schools that provided inferior education and opportunity (Mohatt et al., 2014; Family and Children’s Trust Fund of Virginia, 2019), and international students of color whose families settle in the U.S. with refugee, asylee, immigrant, and/or undocumented statuses face additional layers of systemic racialized oppression (Chen & Rhoads, 2016; Gildersleeve & Vigil, 2015; Merriam et al., 2001; Suárez-Orozco et al., 2015; Teranishi et al., 2015);

Whereas, Interlocking systems of oppression negatively affect students marginalized by their intersectional identities. For example, Black female students with a disability—such that they experience exclusionary discipline at significantly higher rates than their White peers, leading to school pushout (Gage et al., 2019; Krezmien et al., 2006; Sullivan et al., 2014). In addition, for girls and women of color, systemic racism and systemic sexism are intersecting oppressive factors in education (Crenshaw, 1991; Eaton et al., 2020);

Whereas, Because of the disproportionate concentration of students of color in lower economic strata resulting from racism, students of color seeking higher and graduate education are often in a disadvantaged economic position, which necessitates increased reliance on student loans, in turn leading to further systemic disadvantage on the basis of race (Jiménez & Glater, 2020; Lantz & Davis, 2017; Wilcox et al., 2021a, 2021b);

Whereas, Assessments of the impacts of systemic racism in education often center around what negative and hurtful experiences students face, but what remains lacking are institutional/school-level conversations and actions to intervene and address systemic oppression that educators of color face. Educators of color, often being the only or one of the few in educational spaces, are expected to navigate White norms set by their peers and administrators but also students (and their families) without adequate support and resources, and with an additional, disproportionate, and often underappreciated role in advancing institutional diversity, equity, and inclusion agendas (Alger, 2000; Gonzalez, 1995; Jackson & Phelps, 2004; Jimenez et al., 2019; Perna, 2003; Turner et al., 2008);

Whereas, Although education is intended to liberate and enlighten, it has too often oppressed and silenced the voices of people of color who know and have experienced a different history. Psychological education comes from a White, Western European, and ethnocentric perspective that has distorted the lives of people of color, omitted their contributions in history, and portrayed them in pathological and stereotypical ways. The detrimental impact to people of color is demeaning, and it provides those with power and privilege a false reality that allows them to oppress and pass racist policies in innocence and naivete (Cross, 2005; Huber et al., 2006);

Whereas, The use of standardized test scores in the admissions process are viewed inappropriately by some as a barometer of applicants’ academic merit, when in fact they “do not measure the full range of abilities that are needed in higher education, nor were they designed to…tests are therefore best viewed as imprecise estimates of how students might be expected to perform” (Institute of Medicine, 2004, p. 6; Worrell, 2009); and

Whereas, The climate for diversity in higher education and graduate psychology programs can encourage or suppress underrepresented racial and ethnic group participation (Worrell, 2011); in education, students of color are subjected to more negative racial experiences, and their racial and ethnic backgrounds are often portrayed in a stereotypical and demeaning fashion (Cheryan & Monin, 2005; Maton et al., 2011; Mendoza-Denton et al., 2002);

Therefore, be it resolved that APA reaffirms its commitment to combating every level of racism throughout the education system, from prekindergarten through postsecondary education and lifelong learning, for its devastating effects on the academic, physical, psychological, and economic well-being of people and communities of color;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate for rigorous education policy in order to create equity across learning environments that will positively impact students of color and the larger society, fostering educational attainment that will reverberate across social determinants of health, complemented with population-specific policies to redress the history of violence and inequity disenfranchising Indigenous American, Latinx, Black, Middle Eastern and North African, Asian American and Pacific Islander, and biracial and multiracial communities;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA affirms the importance of teaching the history of racism in the U.S. and will continue to provide resources to support the teaching of this history to prepare all students to think critically about identity, community, and civics, fostering both educational success and solidarity to build a more just future;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate for evidence-based preservice and in-service training for teachers to raise awareness of and mitigate against biases, both explicit and implicit, that negatively affect learning and development among students of color;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will support school desegregation efforts to achieve a better balance across schools to reflect the diversity of the communities that public schools serve while ensuring that resources are adequately advocated for historically minoritized and marginalized students;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA urges all schools and school districts to review student disciplinary policies and collect and monitor demographic data on students under disciplinary action, ensuring that these policies do not disproportionately affect students of color;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA further urges all schools and school districts to provide culturally responsive and age-appropriate mental health services and supports to students, particularly historically minoritized and marginalized students at risk for behavioral, academic, or other psychosocial challenges that may affect student learning;

Therefore, be it resolved that through appropriate mechanisms, APA will encourage higher education admissions policies that require a comprehensive, holistic review of each applicant, including an assessment of applicants’ attributes that support the mission of the institution, and balance quantitative data with these qualitative characteristics. Further, APA will encourage programs to consider interview processes that are not cost-prohibitive to applicants of color and do not disadvantage applicants who cannot travel;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate for Public Service Loan Forgiveness and college affordability in order to promote equitable access to higher and graduate education for students of color;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA calls on psychology departments and programs to engage in sustainable and systemic antiracist efforts, and actively work to change educational environments that are ethnoracially discriminatory and oppressive;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will encourage higher education institutions and graduate psychology training and internship programs to develop and regularly evaluate the climate for equity and inclusion; regularly train students, faculty, and staff regarding institutional antiracism and antiracist policies and expectations; and establish confidential mediation processes for students and faculty who experience racism and/or racism;

Therefore, be it resolved that through appropriate mechanisms, APA will support and lead efforts to encourage undergraduate and graduate departments and programs of psychology to systematically review instructional materials and goals, and incorporate greater attention to psychology’s historical role in perpetuating racism;

Therefore, be it resolved that through appropriate mechanisms, APA will encourage Health Service Psychology graduate programs to establish explicit policies regarding the value of culturally competent care pursuant to the APA Multicultural Guidelines and the role of institutional diversity in achieving this goal;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will support and lead research, advocacy, prevention, and program development efforts that seek to ameliorate the antecedents and consequences of all levels of racism throughout the education system through psychological science and practice;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA calls on all psychologists to actively engage in antiracist efforts to address the causes and effects of all levels of racism in the education system; advocate for changes to policies and procedures that contribute to racist practices and outcomes; engage in antiracist practice through an intersectional lens; develop preventive and intervention efforts to promote racial justice; and promote racial justice through their research, teaching, practice, and advocacy; and

Therefore, be it resolved that because racism in criminal justice, employment, housing, health care, and other systems both causes and is caused by racism in the education system, APA will support and lead research, advocacy, prevention, and program development efforts that seek to address systemic racism at the intersection of education and other systems.

Whereas, Stereotypes, insufficient education and information, and structural biases and barriers have limited the access and interest of populations of color to the field of psychological science (e.g., Buchanan et al., in press; Roberts et al., 2020);

Whereas, Structural biases and barriers, such as a lack of appreciation for qualitative and mixed-methods research, have limited the research on historically marginalized groups and from diverse scholars (Chavez et al., 2008; Howard & Hoffman, 2018);

Whereas, Structural biases and barriers, such as biases toward research with White comparison groups, have created inequities in the review processes used to evaluate research based on theories and methods relevant to the study of diverse populations (Buchanan et al., in press; Hall & Maramba, 2001);

Whereas, Convenience sampling has maintained a “White-default” approach to the reporting of findings in psychological science, which also reproduces Whiteness as the standard against which outcomes for marginalized populations are measured (Buchanan et al., in press);

Whereas, Epistemological biases and the devaluation of all but those epistemologies most closely aligned with Whiteness have limited sampling designs, research designs, and methodological approaches that, in turn, stand to limit our understanding of the qualitative and quantitative characteristics and experiences of underrepresented and historically marginalized groups within the scientific literature (Cokley & Awad, 2008, 2013; Grzanka & Moradi, 2021);

Whereas, The boundaries of psychological science have often been controlled to define “good” psychological science as that which centers “objectivity,” an extension of well-established literatures despite the historic marginalization of scholars and communities of color from those literatures, is quantitative in nature, and is rooted in paradigms most closely aligned with Whiteness, thereby equating “good” psychological science with the reproduction of systemic and structural barriers to antiracist scholarship (Grzanka & Cole, in press);

Whereas, Scholarly structures pertaining to the propagation, dissemination, and recognition of research, such as impact factors and citation counts, have created disparate opportunities, processes, and outcomes for scholars from racial/ethnic and intersecting marginalized backgrounds. This has implications for their retention and recruitment into the field, provision of mentoring tailored to the needs of junior faculty of color, and their prospects for professional development, such as procuring tenure in departments of psychology and related fields (Buchanan et al., in press);

Whereas, The devaluing of contributions of scientists of color has resulted in their marginalization from full participation in the field of psychology, including APA governance groups, journal editorial and peer review positions, and tenured and tenure-track university positions, in turn harming the scope of scientific progress (Roberts et al., 2020);

Whereas, Research training has inadequately prepared new cohorts of psychological scientists to identify, understand, and correct systemic inequities, such as the lack of recruitment of diverse and underrepresented participants, the use of measurement tools normed for White populations and the underuse of participatory approaches that emphasize collaboration with community stakeholders, thereby continuing to perpetuate inequity in psychological science (Helms et al., 2005); and,

Whereas, Psychological science has focused predominantly on examining and changing individuals rather than examining and changing the institutions that result in psychological detriment, such as the harms caused by systems of racism to people of color, and its diversity efforts have centered on the comparison of people of color to White people rather than seeking to critique and dismantle racism (Buchanan & Wiklund, 2020; Grzanka & Miles, 2016; Grzanka & Cole, in press);

Therefore, be it resolved that APA reaffirms its commitment to combating every level of racism throughout psychological science, from education and training, support for scholars of color, addressing the marginalization of those methods and epistemologies less aligned with Whiteness, enhancing expectations in the reporting of psychological science, to working to ensure that the future of psychological science atones for its historical misuse that has resulted in academic, physical, psychological, and economic harm for individuals and communities of color;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will invest in the training of scientists to ensure all can identify, understand, and address the historical and contemporary rootedness of much psychological science in White sociocultural norms; and to develop a psychological science that helps to dismantle systemic and structural racism that has disproportionally excluded perspectives, scholars, and samples of people of color from psychological research;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA affirms that scholars strive for samples that take a more careful approach to representative sampling in quantitative research, so that research results are applicable beyond merely White, middle class, college-educated populations, and that genuinely and thoroughly integrates intersectionality;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA affirms that the body of psychological science must be comprised of rigorous research conducted across the epistemological continuum, to include not only those positivist and postpositivist paradigms that most closely align with Whiteness, but also constructivist, critical-ideological, and other critical paradigms; that no one methodological approach is “better,” but rather, each may be conducted with or without appropriate scientific rigor and with or without appropriate applicability to the research question(s). High-quality psychological science includes quantitative, qualitative, mixed-methods, and participatory approaches conducted in accordance with the standards of rigor unique to each approach, and conclusions informed by the totality of the high-quality psychological science that spans these methods which are more likely to be racially just;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA affirms and will encourage psychological scientists to conduct and report research within APA journals in a manner that better incorporates samples that are more inclusive of participants of color relevant to their psychological research, as appropriate, to increase the diversity of the samples examined and reported in psychological research. This includes engaging representatives of communities of color in planning, conducting, interpreting, and communicating about such research to help ensure that their human rights are respected and protected, and to promote the objectivity of scientific inquiry by considering historical, cultural, and political contexts;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will adopt practices and collect data to ensure accountability, reflected in metrics such as the proportion of papers including racially diverse samples sent for peer review, commensurate practices in manuscript titling, and monitoring of discriminatory or racist comments within the reviewing and editorial process;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will create resources to guide scientific departments in addressing inequities in review, promotion and tenure criteria (and critically evaluate publication impact metrics) to place a value on the work of scholars of color, provide career resources, mentoring, and reinforcement for research that adopts practices that promote standards for how research is conducted, reported, and disseminated that are less rooted in Whiteness;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate for increased research funding and opportunities for scholars of color to expand the foundation of knowledge that informs diagnosis and intervention and other aspects of psychological practice;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA reaffirms its commitment to Evidence-Based Practice as the standard of science-informed treatment, including a commitment to promote the need for and support of research questions being answered by a body of methodologically and epistemologically diverse, high-quality psychological science;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will strive to ensure that scholars of color are represented on APA and other peer review panels, editorial boards, and governance groups and in leadership positions that shape practices and policies (which may be enhanced by mentoring and guidance for early career scientists of color); and

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will systematically evaluate the policies and practices used to review psychological science (e.g., grant proposals, publications, and reports) and evaluate the progress of scholars of color, as well as among researchers studying individuals and communities of color, to dismantle all forms of racism within psychological science and engage in reform and redesign of policies and practices to assure equity and move toward an antiracist psychological science.

Whereas, Health care in the U.S. reflects the history of racism denying communities of color access to care, resulting in an inequitable and inaccessible health care system for all (American Psychological Association, 2021b; Bailey et al., 2021; Gee & Ontniano Verissimo, 2016; James, 2017; Krieger, 2021);

Whereas, The dominant health care model informing education, training, and practice interventions has largely been derived from White and Western populations and professionals without systematic inclusion of other perspectives, resulting in systems and practices that do not acknowledge or incorporate non-White, non-Western knowledge and perspectives (Interlandi, 2019);

Whereas, The traditional “medical model” of health care pathologizes cultural difference, driving underutilization by marginalized communities due to stigma and creating barriers to a population health approach, which aims to provide access to primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of prevention and intervention services for historically minoritized communities (Bailey et al., 2021);

Whereas, The failure to understand how the role of power, combined with the systematic exclusion of vital cultural and psychological knowledge and resources and inadequate cultural competency of providers to work with people of color, results in the application and misapplication of diagnoses and therapeutic interventions less well-suited to those who are not White and Western (American Psychological Association, 2021c);

Whereas, This misapplication can reinforce inaccurate theories, models, and interventions and stigmatization, which result in inadequate, inappropriate, potentially harmful, and fundamentally poor health care for people of color (American Psychological Association, 2021c);

Whereas, The history of oppression suffered by people of color has resulted in intergenerational trauma that calls for a developmental, culturally responsive, and race conscious, trauma-informed, and lifespan approach to treatment (Comas-Diaz, Hall & Neville 2019; Mohatt et al., 2014);

Whereas, The COVID-19 pandemic has magnified the profound existing socioeconomic, racial/ethnic, and intersectional inequities in access to diagnostic assessment and behavioral health services to address anxiety, depression, and grief, among other mental health concerns (Evans & Bufka, 2020); and

Whereas, Many people of color experience multiple barriers to accessing needed behavioral health services, including cultural and linguistic barriers, the high cost of care, limited or challenging insurance options, unaffordable or not easily accessible transportation, and a paucity of appropriately trained and culturally responsive providers in communities of color (American Psychological Association, 2017).

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will strongly encourage educators and trainers of health care providers to address the limitations of knowledge derived primarily from White and Western populations, and will promote education and training structures across the professional lifespan that are inclusive of diverse perspectives to improve the knowledge and cultural responsiveness of professionals;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA affirms that psychological practice needs to adopt culturally responsive, evidence-based prevention, early intervention, and recovery frameworks based on a population health approach to dismantle power structures in the behavioral health care system that serve to create barriers to effective and quality care to people of color;

Therefore, be it resolved that through continuing education policies, as appropriate, APA will encourage psychologists and other providers to seek further education and training on implicit bias, microaggressions, and the necessity of a developmentally, culturally sensitive and race conscious, trauma-informed, and lifespan approach to treatment when working with populations with histories of oppression and intergenerational trauma;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will partner in interprofessional and interdisciplinary program development, consultation, and advocacy efforts in support of culturally derived, informed, and adapted evidence-based and practice-based evidence, assessments, and interventions that reflect the knowledge, experience, and inclusion of intersectional communities of color;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will continue to advocate for greater federal investment and funding in training of psychologists from underrepresented groups and to expand incentives for psychologists and other mental health professionals to work in underserved communities (e.g., through expansion of federal Health Resources and Services Administration’s programs, such as the National Health Service Corps);

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will continue to advocate for the availability and accessibility of and payment for culturally responsive telehealth practices, such as audio-only telemental health services and interjurisdictional practice, that reduce barriers to access for all populations, especially those in rural and remote areas, without access to significant technology, and to those with disabilities, and thereby reduce geographic, cultural, functional, and linguistic barriers to accessing care;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will continue to develop and advocate for access to Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) codes and reimbursement models to capture the ways in which psychologists practice across diverse groups in addressing mental health, physical health, and social determinants of health;

Therefore, be it resolved that when advancing a population health approach, APA will also promote quality measurement that captures disparities across diverse groups, such as poor quality care, and advance the development and implementation of quality and trusted services that eliminate ethnic and racial disparities in care; and

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will continue to advocate for equitable health care for all, including comprehensive health care for communities of color at federal and state levels, and stronger enforcement of mental health parity laws to ensure that behavioral health treatments are adequately covered by insurance plans.

Whereas, Work is integral to adult life and human identity, a critical source of economic opportunity, and a key contributor to the welfare of families, communities, and society at large (Katz & Kahn, 1978), yet ample research evidence demonstrates how racism at all levels can powerfully undermine equal access and equal outcomes at work and in the workforce (Avery et al., 2018; Avery & Ruggs, 2020);

Whereas, The history of the U.S. includes the use of racism to divide the workforce, facilitate unsafe and racist workplaces, and justify low wages especially for workers of color (Gee & Ford, 2011);

Whereas, Both work and racism interact with one another to profoundly affect the world of work, including disempowering multiracial labor unions, facilitating deindustrialization’s disproportionate impact on communities of color, and promoting the “wages of Whiteness” privileging White workers and marginalizing immigrant workers and workers of color (Roediger, 1999);

Whereas, Technological advances (e.g. artificial intelligence, automation) in a globalized world worsen racial and economic inequities across the globe, fueling survival immigration and antiimmigrant sentiment (Matamoros-Fernández, 2017);

Whereas, Racism diminishes workforce training and development opportunities for people and communities of color, contributing to higher levels of unemployment, poverty, crime, community violence, and problems for the reentry population securing jobs;

Whereas, Employers will perpetuate systemic racism in their work environment whenever they fail to adopt a lens of equity, diversity, and inclusion, thereby risking the creation of discriminatory policies and practices that uphold a broader climate and culture rife with biases, both explicit and unintentional;

Whereas, Ethnic and cultural diversity yields a substantial positive financial return for U.S. companies, especially for diversity at the executive level (Hunt et al., 2015; Roberson & Park, 2007) and may lead to other valued organizational outcomes when implemented well from the top and integrated into organizational policy and practice, including increased profitability and increased employee motivation, commitment, and productivity (Peterson & Mann, 2020); and

Whereas, Applied psychology has developed evidence-based interventions for addressing racism in the workplace as a systemic problem requiring multimodal solutions prior to, during, and subsequent to entering the workforce, including congenial and productive intergroup contact in the workplace.

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will collaborate through consultation and policy with private and public sectors at local and national levels to meaningfully increase representation of people of color at all levels in the workforce by helping to ensure equal access and opportunity along all critical educational and training pathways showing evidence for a more diverse and robust workforce applicant pool;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate for organizational and policy solutions with robust equity, diversity, and inclusion initiatives across public and private sectors, along with comprehensive health care and a broad parental leave and daycare program, all of which will benefit communities of color, and thus the good of all families, communities, and the nation;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will encourage employers to use reliable, valid, and fair employment testing and personnel selection practices that minimize bias, reduce adverse impact, and comply with professional standards, legal requirements, and ethical guidelines (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission [EEOC], 1978; EEOC 2012; Hough et al., 2001; Morelli, 2019; Ployhart & Holtz, 2008; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998; Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology [SIOP], 2018). Such practices require continuous evaluation and investment in personnel selection systems to maintain their high quality and reflect their commitment to providing people of color applying to jobs with fair and equitable hiring opportunities (Jones et al., 2017; SIOP, 2018);

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will urge all organizations to examine, redefine, and improve organizational culture to fully include and support employees of color at all levels. This requires a systematic examination of policies and practices including but not limited to performance management, training, compensation, and changes to organizational climate;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate—within and outside the discipline—for top-down organizational cultural change implemented with employees and cultivated through leadership, teamwork, and day-to-day individual behaviors that contribute to productive intergroup contact. This should include feedback structures and processes that facilitate bottom-up, assessment, and change in the form of organizational diversity, equity, and inclusion committees and multiracial labor unions; and

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate—within and outside the discipline—for specific support structures, mentorship, professional development, and retention and recruitment of employees of color in leadership and upper management positions, especially given the additional burdens such employees face due to intersecting marginalization.

Whereas, The U.S. criminal justice system originated in laws, policies, and practices that criminalized and punished Indigenous and African people for resisting colonization and slavery, and has evolved to require or incentivize the oppression of people of color through convict leasing; the Jim Crow era; the wars on crime and drugs; broken-windows, zero-tolerance, and quality-of-life policing; mass incarceration; and the criminalization of immigrants (Chavez-Dueñas et al., 2019; Cunneen & Tauri, 2019; Hinton & Cook, 2021; Muhammed, 2019);

Whereas, The criminal justice system produces glaring racial and ethnic disparities for people of color, compared to White people, through more aggressive policing and prosecution, increasing the likelihood that people of color plead guilty and are convicted by judges and juries, are detained and imprisoned for longer periods of time (Kovera, 2019), and experience a host of negative educational, economic, health, and mental health consequences as a result (Bor et al., 2018; Bryant-Davis et al., 2017; Burke et al., under contract; Stevenson et al., 2020);

Whereas, Bias and discrimination can have cumulatively worse impacts at each juncture within the criminal and juvenile justice systems (Hunt, 2015; Kovera, 2019; Stevenson et al., 2020) and are especially pronounced against individuals who hold multiple marginalized identities (Ritchie, 2017); and

Whereas, Decades of psychological science have yielded incontrovertible evidence that negative criminal and juvenile justice outcomes for people of color are facilitated by (a) structural racism in the system that generates bias and discrimination (Muhammed, 2019); (b) institutional racism in policies and practices, including professional socialization into subcultures of social control and intolerance (Hall et al., 2016; Stoughton, 2015) and chronic situational conditions that are known to intensify bias (Pryor et al., 2020; Swencionis & Goff, 2017); and (c) interpersonal racism arising from stereotypes and attitudes among criminal and juvenile justice professionals, both explicit and implicit, that dehumanize people of color and associate them with criminality and threat (Andretta et al., 2019; Eberhardt, 2019; Willis-Esqueda, 2020), all of which threatens the perceived legitimacy of criminal and juvenile justice actors and undermines the system as a whole (Trinkner & Goff, 2019; Tyler, 2017);

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate for the development of empirically rooted, culturally informed policies, programs, and practices that seek to eliminate the disproportionate criminalization and punishment of people of color by reducing opportunities for discriminatory outcomes, such as discouraging law enforcement actions that overpolice communities of color; addressing factors known to relate to increased risk of bias in criminal justice professionals’ decision-making, such as racial bias, serious mental illness, and substance use; and instituting services that match both momentary and long-term needs, including responding to individuals’ mental health crises or disabilities with appropriately trained behavioral health professionals and community-based programs, and supporting successful rehabilitation of people of color who enter the system and reintegrate into their community (Goff & Rau, 2020; Klukoff et al., 2021; Kovera, 2019; Primm et al., 2005; Pryor et al., 2020; Thompson et al., 2016);

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will work to address the harms inflicted upon people of color by the criminal and juvenile justice system by advancing historically and culturally informed programs, policies, and practices that foster educational, economic, physical, and psychological well-being and resilience among people, families, and communities of color (Arditti & Johnson, 2020; Fine & Cross, 2016);

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will promote partnerships between psychologists and criminal and juvenile justice agencies to foster research and development related to the use of rigorous, diversity-science informed methods that facilitate measurement, analysis, and identification of racial and ethnic disparities throughout the criminal and juvenile justice system and support data-driven changes to laws, policies, practices, and multicomponent interventions that will eliminate structural racism, dismantle institutional racism, and facilitate the democratic ideal of equal justice for all (Boxer et al., 2021; Miller et al., 2019); and

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will support criminal and juvenile justice agencies as they build antiracist values into their organizational policies and practices, including encouraging administrators and supervisors to endorse antiracist principles through the execution of evidence-based reforms that eradicate bias and discrimination; adopt effective interventions that raise awareness of the conditions that produce racial and ethnic disparities at every level of the criminal justice system (Brannon et al., 2018; Neville & Spanierman, 2012); and implement recruitment, hiring, and promotion practices that attract, retain, and advance racially and ethnically diverse people who understand the lives and perspectives of people of color as well as people who are committed to equity and justice (Ba et al., 2021; Ward et al., 2009).

Whereas, Attitudes toward race are learned very early in life, through modeling within the family and within cultural contextual experiences. These socialization experiences may begin as parent-led processes but may become more peer-led during adolescence (Hu et al., 2017);

Whereas, Interpersonal and internalized racism develop through direct methods of transmitting race-related messages, such as educational conversations with parents, or through indirect socialization experiences, such as observation of parental attitudes and behaviors, which produce the development of attitudes and biases towards oneself and others (Boykin & Toms, 1985; Hughes & Chen, 1997; Hughes et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2019);

Whereas, Research on racism and implicit bias has shown that anti-Black racism and discrimination relates to parental discipline and occurs from toddlerhood throughout adolescence. Racism may be more likely to be indirectly communicated through parents’ negative attitudes towards people of color (Brown et al., 2007; Lesane-Brown et al., 2010; Xu et al., 2014);

Whereas, Disparities in school discipline grow from racism of school staff as well as policing in schools and the influence of the norms of White sociocultural norms consequently impacting Black, Indigenous, and other students of color (Anyon et al., 2016; Sevon et al., 2021; Skiba et al., 2002);

Whereas, Research suggests that implicit biases may be reduced through interventions designed to either address biases directly or increase teachers’ empathy for children of color (Gilliam et al., 2016);

Whereas, Systems and structures of racism affect youth of color even prenatally through such mechanisms as maternal health care, stressors associated with experiencing racism, and disparities in access to resources and opportunity, and continue to affect youth of color throughout the lifespan (APA 2021);

Whereas, Racist attitudes that often begin in early childhood have been linked to racial inequity (Kovera, 2019) and negative group outcomes (Dovidio et al., 2002; Greenwald et al., 2009);

Whereas, Significant adversity in life such as exposure to racism can undermine the foundations of healthy development (Shonkoff et al., 2021);

Whereas, Parents of color are more likely to be in low-wage jobs and paid less compared to White counterparts and to experience erratic work hours, and are less likely to have employment benefits like paid time off or parental leave. These challenges are often exacerbated for women of color. While evidence suggests that parents of color tend to spend more time with their children despite long and inconsistent work hours, this comes at the cost of overall well-being, with implications for childcare and ultimately child/adolescent mental health (Moorman, 2021);

Whereas, Children of all backgrounds who learn about their own culture and that of other ethnoracial identities yield more optimal psychosocial outcomes (Priest et al., 2014); and

Whereas, Increased contact between youth and people of different ethnoracial identities yields reduced racial conflict in the organization or environment (Dovidio et al., 2017);

Therefore, be it resolved that all APA antiracism efforts should consider a developmental approach to how racism is socialized across the lifespan and include consideration of protective factors in the prevention of both interpersonal and internalized racist attitudes;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will support the development and implementation of interventions designed to address the prevention of racism and promotion of antiracism that are developmentally appropriate beginning in very early childhood;

Therefore, be it resolved that to improve children’s positive racial and ethnic socialization, APA will advocate for strategies to improve cross-racial experiences before children attend school, and increase contact with peers before age six, when they typically become a part of a school group. The adults in close contact with children need skills and guidance to provide environments that appreciate diversity and inclusion and reject racism and discrimination. Such adults include family members, caretakers, educators, and professionals serving children;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate for increased research on racism that includes not only race-related outcomes but also childhood racism socialization processes, as well as support for the development of standardized effective measurement tools that quantify both direct and indirect racism socialization methods. This information will then help in the development of policies, practices, and recommendations for promoting antiracism within and across generations;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will update materials developed for the public to be inclusive of cultural differences and current experiences of all communities, including citizens of diverse races and ethnic origins and more recent migrant groups;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will increase dissemination to the public of educational information addressing the prevention of racism and the promotion of antiracism in early childhood by engaging subject matter experts in opportunities to communicate via television, social media, audio and other visual formats, and other venues as available;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will advocate for learning environments (e.g., school, extracurricular activities) that are culturally diverse and antiracist; and

Therefore, be it resolved that APA will promote alliances with other health professionals, educators, and community groups committed to children’s well-being and concerned with systemic racism.

Whereas, Public policy at all levels plays an inextricable role in perpetuating and eradicating racism through policy changes in areas including, but not limited to, education, health care, science, criminal justice, and employment;

Whereas, Racism, especially its institutional and structural forms, cannot be dismantled without effective public policy, as existing or absent public policy pertaining to (but not limited to) education, health care, science, criminal justice, and employment is rooted in both historical and contemporary racism;

Whereas, Psychology is uniquely positioned, and has a responsibility to inform antiracist and equity-driven public policy through psychological science and practice;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA reaffirms its commitment to promoting comprehensive strategies to address systemic racism, as well as actively taking steps to eradicate racism in U.S. government-wide programs;

Therefore, be it resolved that APA is committed to the education and training of psychologists who are well-versed in both public policy as well as systemic and social determinants of health, including racism; and

Therefore, be it resolved that as Congress and state legislatures consider legislation concerning race and racism, APA will consider and apply psychological science in determining how best to educate, support, and/or oppose such proposals.

Preamble

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Science

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Health care

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Bailey, Z. D., Feldman, J. M., & Bassett, M. T. (2021). How structural racism works—Racist policies as a root cause of U.S. racial health inequities. New England Journal of Medicine, 384(8), 768–773. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmms2025396

Comas-Díaz, L., Hall, G. N., & Neville, H. A. (2019). Racial trauma: Theory, research, and healing: Introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 74(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000442

Evans, A. C., & Bufka, L. F. (2020). The critical need for a population health approach: Addressing the nation’s behavioral health during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. Preventing Chronic Disease Journal, 17(200261). https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd17.200261

Family and Children’s Trust Fund of Virginia. (2019). Systems of trauma. https://www.fact.virginia.gov/systems-of-trauma

Gee, G. C., & Ontniano Verissimo, A. D. (2016). Racism and behavioral outcomes over the life course. In A. N. Alvarez, C. T. H. Liang, & H. A. Neville (Eds.), The cost of racism for people of color: Contextualizing experiences of discrimination (pp. 133–162). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14852-007

Interlandi, J. (2019). Why doesn’t the United States have universal health care? The answer has everything to do with race. New York Times, 1619 Project.

James, S. A. (2017). The strangest of all encounters: Racial and ethnic discrimination in US health care. Cad Saude Publica, 33(Suppl. 1), Article e00104416. https://doi: 00104410.00101590/00100102-0104311X00104416

Krieger, N. (2021). Structural racism, health inequities, and the two-edged sword of data: Structural problems require structural solutions. Frontiers in Public Health, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.655447

Lockwood, K. G., Marsland, A. L., Matthews, K. A., & Gianaros, P. J. (2018). Perceived discrimination and cardiovascular health disparities: A multisystem review and health neuroscience perspective. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1428(1), 170–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13939

Marsac, M. L., Kassam-Adams, N., Hildenbrand, A. K., Nicholls, E., Winston, F. K., Leff, S. S., & Fein, J. (2016). Implementing a trauma-informed approach in pediatric health care networks. JAMA Pediatrics, 170(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.2206

Maton, K. I., Wimms, H. E., Grant, S. K., Wittig, M. A., Rogers, M. R., & Vasquez, M. J. (2011). Experiences and perspectives of African American, Latina/o, Asian American, and European American psychology graduate students: A national study. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021668

McGhee, H. (2021). The sum of us: What racism costs everyone and how we can prosper together. One World.

Metzl, J. M. (2019). Dying of whiteness: How the politics of racial resentment is killing America’s heartland. Hachette UK.

Mohatt, N. V., Thompson, A. B., Thai, N. D., & Tebes, J. K. (2014). Historical trauma as public narrative: A conceptual review of how history impacts present-day health. Social Science & Medicine, 106, 128–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.01.043

Patel, V. (2012). Global Mental Health: From Science to Action. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 20(1), 6–12. https://doi.org/10.3109/10673229.2012.649108

Work and economic opportunities

Avery, D. R., & Ruggs, E. N. (2020). Confronting the uncomfortable reality of workplace discrimination. MIT Sloan Management Review. https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/confronting-the-uncomfortable-reality-of-workplace-discrimination/

Avery, D. R., Volpone, S. D., & Holmes, O., IV. (2018). Racial discrimination in organizations. In A. J. Colella & E. B. King (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of workplace discrimination (pp. 89–109). Oxford University Press.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2012). Enforcement guidance on the consideration of arrest and conviction records in employment decisions under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act. https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/guidance/enforcement-guidance-consideration-arrest-and-conviction-records-employment-decisions

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Civil Service Commission, Department of Labor, & Department of Justice. (1978). Uniform guidelines on employee selection procedures. Federal Register, 43(166), 38290–39315. https://www.uniformguidelines.com

Gee, G. C. & Ford, C. (2011). Structural racism and health inequities. Old issues, new directions. Du Bois Review, 8(1), 115–132. doi: 10.1017/S1742058X11000130

Hough, L. M., Oswald, F. L., & Ployhart, R. E. (2001). Determinants, detection, and amelioration of adverse impact in personnel selection procedures: Issues, evidence, and lessons learned. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 152–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2389.00171

Hunt, V., Layton, D., & Prince, S. (2015). Diversity matters. McKinsey & Company. https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mckinsey/business%20functions/organization/our%20insights/why%20diversity%20matters/diversity%20matters.ashx

Jones, K. P., Arena, D. F., Nittrouer, C. L., Alonso, N. M., & Lindsey, A. P. (2017). Subtle discrimination in the workplace: A vicious cycle. Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice, 10(1), 51–76. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2016.91

Katz, D., & Kahn, R. L. (1978). The social psychology of organizations (2nd ed.). Wiley.

Matamoros-Fernández, A. (2017). Platformed racism: The mediation and circulation of an Australian race-based controversy on Twitter, Facebook and YouTube. Information, Communication & Society, 20(6), 930–946. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2017.1293130

Morelli, N. (2019). Artificial intelligence in talent assessment and selection [White paper prepared by the Visibility Committee of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology]. SIOP. https://www.siop.org/Portals/84/docs/White%20Papers/visibility/AI.pdf

Peterson, D. M., & Mann, C. L. (2020, September). Closing the racial inequality gaps: The economic cost of Black inequality in the U.S. Citi GPS: Global Perspectives & Solutions. https://ir.citi.com/%2FPRxPvgNWu319AU1ajGf%2BsKbjJjBJSaTOSdw2DF4xynPwFB 8a2j1FaA3Idy7vY59bOtN2lxVQM%3D

Ployhart, R. E., & Holtz, B. C. (2008). The diversity-validity dilemma: Strategies for reducing racioethnic and sex subgroup differences and adverse impact in selection. Personnel Psychology, 61, 153–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2008.00109.x

Roberson, Q. M., & Park, H. J. (2007). Examining the link between diversity and firm performance: The effects of diversity reputation and leader racial diversity. Group & Organization Management, 32(5), 548–568. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601106291124

Roediger, D. (1999). The wages of whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class. Verso.

Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 262–274. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.262

Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. (2018). Principles for the validation and use of personnel selection procedures (5th ed.). https://www.apa.org/ed/accreditation/about/policies/personnel-selection-procedures.pdf

Criminal justice

Andretta, J. R., Worrell, F. C., Watkins, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Thompson, A. D., & Woodland, M. H. (2019). Race and stereotypes matter when you ask about conduct problems: Implications for violence risk assessment in juvenile justice settings. Journal of Black Psychology, 45(1), 26–51. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798418821278

Arditti, J. A., & Johnson, E. I. (2020). A family resilience agenda for understanding and responding to parental incarceration. American Psychologist. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000687

Ba, B. A., Knox, D., Mummolo, J., & Rivera, R. (2021). The role of officer race and gender in police civilian interactions in Chicago. Science, 371(6530), 696–702. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abd8694

Bor, J., Venkataramani, A. S., Williams, D. R., & Tsai, A. C. (2018). Police killings and their spillover effects on the mental health of Black Americans: A population-based, quasi-experimental study. Lancet, 392, 302–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140- 6736(18)31130-9

Boxer, P., Brunson, R. K., Gaylord-Harden, N., Kahn, K., Patton, D. U., Richardson, J., Rivera, L. M., Smith Lee, J. R., Staller, M. S., Krahé, B., Dubow, E. F., Parrott, D., & Algrim, K. (2021). Addressing the inappropriate use of force by police in the United States and beyond: A behavioral and social science perspective. Aggressive Behavior, 47(5), 502–512. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21970

Bryant‐Davis, T., Adams, T., Alejandre, A., & Gray, A. A. (2017). The trauma lens of police violence against racial and ethnic minorities. Journal of Social Issues, 73, 852–871. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12251

Brannon, T. N., Carter, E. R., Murdock-Perriera, L. A., & Higginbotham, G. D. (2018). From backlash to inclusion for all: Instituting diversity efforts to maximize benefits across group lines. Social Issues and Policy Review, 12(1), 57–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12040

Burke, K. C., Najdowski, C. J., & Stevenson, M. C. (under contract). Racial disparities in policing: Psychological consequences over the lifespan. In A. D. Redlich & J. A. Quas (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology and the law. Oxford University Press.

Chavez-Dueñas, N. Y., Adames, H. Y., Perez-Chavez, J. G., & Salas, S. P. (2019). Healing ethno-racial trauma in Latinx immigrant communities: Cultivating hope, resistance, and action. American Psychologist, 74(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000289

Cunneen, C., & Tauri, J. M. (2019). Indigenous peoples, criminology, and criminal justice. Annual Review of Criminology, 2, 359–381. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-011518-024630

Eberhardt, J. L. (2019). Biased: Uncovering the hidden prejudice that shapes what we see, think, and do. Penguin Books.

Fine, M., & Cross, W. E., Jr. (2016). Critical race, psychology, and social policy: Refusing damage, cataloging oppression, and documenting desire. In A. N. Alvarez, C. T. H. Liang, & H. A. Neville (Eds.), The cost of racism for people of color: Contextualizing experiences of discrimination (pp. 273–294). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14852-013

Goff, P. A., & Rau, H. (2020). Predicting bad policing: Theorizing burdensome and racially disparate policing through the lenses of social psychology and routine activities. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 687(1), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716220901349

Hall, A. V., Hall, E. V., & Perry, J. L. (2016). Black and blue: Exploring racial bias and law enforcement in the killings of unarmed black male civilians. American Psychologist, 71(3), 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040109

Hinton, E., & Cook, D. (2020). The mass criminalization of Black Americans: A historical overview. Annual Review of Criminology, 4, 261–286. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306

Hunt, J. S. (2015). Race in the justice system. In B. L. Cutler & P. A. Zapf (Eds.), APA handbook of forensic psychology: Criminal investigation, adjudication, and sentencing outcomes (Vol. 2, pp. 125–161). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14462-005

Klukoff, H., Kanani, H., Gaglione, C., & Alexander, A. (2021). Toward an abolitionist practice of psychology: Reimagining psychology’s relationship with the criminal justice system. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 61, 451–469. https://doi.org/00221678211015755.

Kovera, M. B. (2019). Racial disparities in the criminal justice system: Prevalence, causes, and a search for solutions. Journal of Social Issues, 75, 1139–1164. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12355

Miller, A. L., Stern, C., & Neville, H. (2019). Forging diversity-science-informed guidelines for research on race and racism in psychological science. Journal of Social Issues, 75(4), 1240–1261. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12356

Neville, H. A., & Spanierman, L. B. (2012). Preventing racial injuries, promoting racial justice. In E. M. Vera (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of prevention in counseling psychology (pp. 476–490). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195396423.013.0030

Primm, A. B., Osher, F. C., & Gomez, M. B. (2005). Race and ethnicity, mental health services and cultural competence in the criminal justice system: Are we ready to change? Community Mental Health Journal, 41, 557–569. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-005-6361-3

Pryor, M., Buchanan, K. S., & Goff, P. A. (2020). Risky situations: Sources of racial disparity in police behavior. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 16, 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurevlawsocsci-101518-042633

Ritchie, A. J. (2017). Invisible no more: Police violence against Black women and women of color. Beacon Press. https://doi.org/10.1080/10439463.2019.1650746

Stevenson, M. C., Bottoms, B. L., & Burke, K. (2020). The legacy of racism for children: Psychology, law, and public policy. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/medpsych/9780190056742.001.0001

Stoughton, S. (2015). Law enforcement’s warrior problem. Harvard Law Review Forum, 128, 225–234.

Swencionis, J. K., & Goff, P. A. (2017). The psychological science of racial bias and policing. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 23(4), 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000130

Thompson, M., Newell, S., & Carlson, M. J. (2016). Race and access to mental health and substance abuse treatment in the criminal justice system. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 55, 69–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/10509674.2015.1112867

Trinkner, R., Kerrison, E. M., & Goff, P. A. (2019). The force of fear: Police stereotype threat, self-legitimacy, and support for excessive force. Law and Human Behavior, 43(5), 421–435. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000339

Tyler, T. R. (2017). Can the police enhance their popular legitimacy through their conduct: Using empirical research to inform law. University of Illinois Law Review, 1971–2008.

Ward, G., Farrell, A., & Rousseau, D. (2009). Does racial balance in workforce representation yield equal justice? Race relations of sentencing in federal court organizations. Law & Society Review, 43(4), 757–806. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5893.2009.00388.x

Willis-Esqueda, C. (2020). Bad characters and desperados: Latinxs and causal explanations for legal system bias. UCLA Law Review, 67, 1204–1222.

Early childhood development

Anyon, Y., Gregory, A., Stone, S. I., Farrar, J., Jenson, J. M., McQueen, J., Downing, B., Greer, E., & Simmons, J. (2016). Restorative interventions and school discipline sanctions in a large urban school district. American Education Research Journal, 53, 1663–1697. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216675719

Boykin, A. W., & Toms, F. D. (1985). Black child socialization: A conceptual framework. In H. P. McAdoo & J. L. McAdoo (Eds.), Black children: Social, environmental, and parental environments (pp. 35–51). Sage Publications.

Brown, T. N., Tanner-Smith, E. E., Lesane-Brown, C. L., & Ezell, M. E. (2007). Child, parent, and situational correlates of familial ethnic/race socialization. Journal of Marriage and Family, 69, 14–25. https://doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00340

Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 62–68. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.1.62

Dovidio, J. F., Love, A., Schellhaas, F. M., & Hewstone, M. (2017). Reducing intergroup bias through intergroup contact: Twenty years of progress and future directions. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 20(5), 606–620.

Gilliam, W. S., Maupin, A. N., Reyes, C. R., Accavitti, M., & Shic, F. (2016). Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions? Yale University Child Study Center, 9(28). https://medicine.yale.edu/childstudy/zigler/publications/Preschool%20Implicit%20Bias%20Policy%20Brief_final_9_26_276766_5379_v1.pdf

Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(1), 17–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015575

Hu, A. W., Zhou, X., & Lee, R. M. (2017). Ethnic socialization and ethnic identity development among internationally adopted Korean American adolescents: A seven-year follow-up. Developmental Psychology, 53(11), 2066–2077. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000421

Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among African American families. Applied Developmental Science, 1, 200–214. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0104

Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747

Kovera, M. B. (2019). Racial disparities in the criminal justice system: Prevalence, causes, and a search for solutions. Journal of Social Issues, 75, 1139–1164. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12355

Lesane-Brown, C. L., Brown, T. N., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Bruce, M. A. (2010). Negotiating boundaries and bonds: Frequency of young children’s socialization to their ethnic/racial Heritage. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41(3), 457–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022109359688

Liu, W. M., Liu, R. Z., Garrison, Y. L., Kim, J. Chan, L., Ho, YS., & Yeung, C. (2019). Racial trauma, microaggressions, and becoming racially innocuous: The role of acculturation and White supremacist ideology. American Psychologist, 74(1), 143–155. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000369

Moorman, J. D. (2021). The privilege of childcare: An intersectional analysis of the COVID-19 US childcare crisis and its implications for CAM research. Journal of Children and Media, 15(1), 41–43.

Priest, N., Walton, J., White, F., Kowal, E., Baker, A., & Paradies, Y. (2014). Understanding the complexities of ethnic-racial socialization processes for both minority and majority groups: A 30-year systematic review. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 43, 139–155.

Sevon, M. A., Levi-Nielsen, S., & Tobin, R. M. (2021). Addressing racism and implicit bias—Part 1: A response to the framework for effective discipline. Communiqué, 45, 10–12.

Sevon, M. A., Levi-Nielsen, S., & Tobin, R. M. (2021). Addressing racism and implicit bias—Part 2: A response to the framework for effective discipline. Communiqué, 49, 1, 14–18.

Shonkoff, J. P., Slopen, N., & Williams, D. R. (2021). Early childhood adversity, toxic stress, and the impacts of racism on the foundations of health. Annual Review of Public Health, 42, 115–134. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-101940.

Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A. C., & Peterson, R. L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34, 317–342. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021320817372

Xu, K., Nosek, B., & Greenwald, A. G. (2014). Psychology data from the Race Implicit Association Test on the Project Implicit Demo website. Journal of Open Psychology Data, 2(1), e3. https://doi.org/10.5334/jopd.ac