In light of the gender and sexual orientation diversity within the human race, and in light of the stigma associated with being a sexual orientation or gender identity minority, in August 2014, APA's Council of Representatives adopted the Resolution on Gender and Sexual Orientation Diversity in Children and Adolescents in Schools. The resolution calls for K-12 public schools to be places of safety and support for all students, and offers recommendations for policies, programs, training, and practices.
Note: The following resources were not formally adopted as part of the resolution by council, but were developed by the resolution working group to support and facilitate dissemination and implementation of the resolution.
Introduction to the Resolution
The stress and stigma of being a sexual orientation or gender identity minority can increase developmental risks for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, queer, asexual, or intersex children and youth. In particular, still too common are concerns around bullying in schools and schools not fully addressing the educational needs of children and youth who are sexual or gender minorities, or those who are questioning their sexual and gender identities. Many sexual and gender minority children and youth experience truancy, dropping out or sometimes being pushed out of school, subtly, or explicitly.
The resolution calls for:
- Promoting safe and supportive school policies for all children and youth.
- Protecting the right to privacy around sex, sexual orientation, and gender identity for children and youth in schools.
- Collecting data on sexual orientation and gender identity in schools.
- Developing anti-bullying efforts within schools.
- Developing programs to increase school engagement for sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth.
- Increasing access to facilities and programs for youth and children based on their gender identity, not their assigned gender.
See fact sheets, best practices and other resources for implementing the resolution’s recommendations.
While issues addressed in this resolution impact sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth in schools worldwide (e.g. stigmatization, stress, bullying, lack of support), they speak more closely to the lived experiences and needs of sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth living in the United States. For example, group identities and other terminology described in the resolution, and literature cited, represent the realities sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth encounter in the United States; they may not apply to those living in other sociocultural contexts. Therefore, this resolution is primarily intended to inform and support the school-based practice of psychologists, counselors and other mental health professionals working with sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth in the United States.
This resolution is aligned with APA's strategic plan — specifically, expanding psychology's role in advancing health and increasing recognition of psychology as a science (i.e., expanding the translation of psychological science into evidence-based practice and promoting the applications of psychological science to daily living). It also advances the National Association of School Psychologists' (NASP) strategic priorities and goals that relate to culturally responsive services and schools; and advocacy for children, youth, families and schools by working to improve policies that will more effectively meet the needs of the whole child.
Context for the Resolution
The current context for this resolution is one of rapid societal change. Youth and children in the context of schools are part of this phenomenon of rapid change. Youth and children are grappling with issues and questions of sexual orientation and gender identity in ways different from previous generations, and often at earlier ages. The last time that APA and NASP addressed sexual minority youth in schools was in 1993, in the joint resolution Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Youth in the Schools. There have been significant changes in societal attitudes since then, but also a lack of improvement in some fundamental ways regarding how our institutions address the needs of sexual orientation and gender identity minority youth.
June 2013 saw the U.S. Supreme Court decide that the Defense of Marriage Act was unconstitutional, and the overturning of Proposition 8 in California, which had rescinded marriage equality for same-sex couples. Since then, state level bans across the country have largely been overturned making marriage equality for same-sex couples available to a significant majority of the population. The "don't ask, don't tell policy" prohibiting open LGBT people from serving in the U.S. military was repealed in 2010.
States are also adopting policies to protect sexual orientation and gender diverse youth in schools. For example, The California Student Safety and Violence Prevention Act of 2000 amended California Education Code to specifically prohibit discrimination against and harassment of students and staff in schools on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity — adding to the protected categories of sex, ethnic group identification, race, national origin, religion, color, or mental or physical disability.
Despite advances in LGBT rights, the prevalence of bullying within school and neighborhood contexts has not declined (Patrick, Bell, Huang, Lazarakis, & Edwards, 2013), and in some communities hate crimes against sexual orientation minorities have even increased (Mustanski, 2013). There has been controversy over "reparative therapy" and sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE). APA and NASP have taken clear stands against these and other efforts to pathologize variations in sexual orientation and gender identity and expression, which infringe on the rights of LGBT individuals. Numerous other education, mental health, and medical professions have adopted similar positions about the ineffectiveness of SOCE, and raise the concern that SOCE may be harmful (APA, 2009; Just the Facts Coalition, 2008).
While this resolution is about schools, schools also have a role in the larger community, in neighborhoods and with families. Thus, the observations and recommendations contained in this resolution are relevant beyond the school walls. Schools should be safe and welcoming to all students, and a resource to the whole community in efforts to enhance the resiliency and psychological well-being of sexual orientation and gender identity minority children and youth.
Definitions and Limitations of Language
The language around gender and sexuality continues to evolve rapidly, even as the Resolution on Gender and Sexual Orientation Diversity in Children and Adolescents in Schools was being written. Words and their definitions change or become refined as our understanding of complex constructs related to sexuality and gender evolves. Using words or phrases that are most accurate, respectful and useful is an important goal in implementing this resolution.
Given how rapidly terminology changes, even the following list of terms and definitions might undergo significant change in the future. The resolution drafters therefore decided it important to explicitly and consciously articulate their current understanding of terms that appear in the resolution and in its supporting documents as follows:
Asexual refers to a person who does not experience sexual attraction or has little interest in sexual activity.
Bullying is unwanted, repetitive and aggressive behavior marked by an imbalance of power. It can take on multiple forms, including physical (e.g., hitting), verbal (e.g., name calling or making threats), relational (e.g., spreading rumors) and electronic (e.g., texting, social networking). (Rossen & Cowan, 2012).
Cisgender replaces the terms "nontransgender" or "bio man/bio woman" to refer to individuals who have a match between the gender they were assigned at birth, their bodies and their gender identity. (Schilt & Westbrook, 2009).
DSD refers to "disorders of sex development," a term that is used to discuss intersex and variations in sex development by some medical professionals and community members. See entry for Intersex .
Gender refers to the attitudes, feelings and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex. Behavior that is compatible with cultural expectations is referred to as gender-normative; behaviors that are viewed as incompatible with these expectations constitute gender non-conformity. (APA, 2012).
Gender expression refers to an individual's presentation — including physical appearance, clothing choice and accessories — and behavior that communicates aspects of gender or gender role. Gender expression may or may not conform to a person's gender identity.
Gender diversity refers to the extent to which a person's gender identity, role or expression differs from the cultural norms prescribed for people of a particular sex. This term is becoming more popular as a way to describe people without reference to a particular cultural norm, in a manner that is more affirming and potentially less stigmatizing than gender nonconformity (Gender Spectrum, n. d.).
Gender dysphoria refers to discomfort or distress that is associated with a discrepancy between a person's gender identity and that person's sex assigned at birth — and the associated gender role and/or primary and secondary sex characteristics (Fisk, 1974; Knudson, De Cuypere, & Bockting, 2010). Only some gender-nonconforming people experience gender dysphoria at some point in their lives (Coleman, et al. 2011).
Gender identity refers to one's sense of oneself as male, female or something else (APA, 2011). When one's gender identity and biological sex are not congruent, the individual may identify along the transgender spectrum (APA, 2012; Gainor, 2000).
Gender identity and sexual orientation are different constructs. Transgender people, like disgender people, may be sexually oriented toward men, women, both sexes or neither sex, and like most people, usually experience their gender identity (who they feel themselves to be) and their sexual orientation (whom they are attracted to) as separate phenomena (Bockting & Gray, 2004; Chivers & Bailey, 2000; Coleman, Bockting, & Gooren, 1993; Docter & Fleming, 2001; Docter & Prince, 1997). Many transgender people experience a shift in their sexual attractions at some point (Daskalos, 1998; Meier, Pardo, Labuski, & Babcock, 2013), indicating that sexual orientation may be more dynamic than previously thought.
Gender non-conforming is an adjective and umbrella term to describe individuals whose gender expression, gender identity, or gender role differs from gender norms associated with their assigned birth sex. Subpopulations of the transgender and gender non-conforming community can develop specialized language to represent their experience and culture, such as the term "masculine of center" that is used in communities of color to describe a gender non-conforming identity.
Gender role refers to a pattern of appearance, personality and behavior that, in a given culture, is associated with being a boy/man/male or being a girl/woman/female. A person's gender role may or may not conform to what is expected based on a person's sex assigned at birth. Gender role may also refer to the social role one is living in (e.g., as a woman, a man or another gender), with some role characteristics conforming and others not conforming to what is associated with girls/women or boys/men in a given culture and time.
Genderqueer refers to a person whose gender identity falls outside of the gender binary (i.e., identifies with neither or both genders). Genderqueers may also use the term "gender fluid" as an identifier but typically reject the term "transgender" because it implies a change from one gender category to another.
Intersex refers to a range of conditions associated with atypical development of physical sex characteristics (APA, 2006). Intersex individuals may be born with chromosomes, genitals and/or gonads that do not fit typical female or male presentations (2013). Some examples of these conditions include ambiguous external genitals, inability of the body to respond typically to sex-related hormones and inconsistency between external genitals and internal reproductive organs (APA, 2006). Since 2006, the medical and research community has used the term disorders of sex development . This term refers to congenital conditions characterized by atypical development of chromosomal, gonadal or anatomical sex (Houk, Hughes, Ahmed, Lee, & Writing Committee for the International Intersex Consensus Conference Participants, 2006). An alternate term — differences of sex development (DSD)— has been recommended to prevent a view of these conditions as diseased or pathological (Wisemann, Udo-Koeller, Sinnecker, & Thyen, 2010). In order to be inclusive of various terminology preferences, the Resolution on Gender and Sexual Orientation Diversity in Children and Adolescents in Schools uses intersex/DSD when referring to individuals who are part of this community.
Pansexual is a term "most commonly used in the world outside academia as a sexual identity (and sexual orientation) term similar to 'bisexuality,' but more inclusive of trans people. It also shows an awareness of the implied gender binary in the term 'bisexual.'" (Elizabeth, 2013, p. 333).
Pushout refers to a student who leaves school before graduation due to the encouragement of school personnel, often to enable the school to achieve a performance goal or to lower disruption within the school, or because the school views the student as too much trouble. This term is in contrast to "drop out" to highlight the institutional influence on individual behavior (Find Youth Info, n.d.).
Queer is an umbrella term that individuals may use to describe a sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression that does not conform to dominant societal norms. Historically, it has been considered a derogatory or pejorative term and the term may continue to be used by some individuals with negative intentions. Still, many LGBT individuals today embrace the label in a neutral or positive manner (Russell, Kosciw, Horn, & Saewyc, 2010). Some youth may adopt 'queer' as an identity term to avoid limiting themselves to the gender binaries of male and female or to the perceived restrictions imposed by lesbian, gay and bisexual sexual orientations (Rivers, 2010).
Questioning is an identity label for people exploring their sexual orientation or gender identity, and is in a state of moratorium in terms of identity formation.
Sex refers to a person's biological status and is typically categorized as male, female or intersex. There are a number of indicators of biological sex, including sex chromosomes, gonads, internal reproductive organs and external genitalia. (APA, 2012).
Sex assignment is the initial categorization of an infant as male or female.
Sexual orientation refers to the sex of those to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted. Categories of sexual orientation typically have included attraction to members of one's own sex (gay men or lesbians), attraction to members of the other sex (heterosexuals), and attraction to members of both sexes (bisexuals). Some people identify as pansexual or queer in terms of their sexual orientation, which means they define their sexual orientation outside of the gender binary of "male" and "female" only. While these categories continue to be widely used, research has suggested that sexual orientation does not always appear in such definable categories and instead occurs on a continuum (Kinsey, Pomeroy, Martin, & Gebhard, 1953; Klein, 1993; Klein, Sepekoff, & Wolff, 1985; Shively & DeCecco, 1977). In addition, some research indicates that sexual orientation is fluid for some people; this may be especially true for women (e.g., Diamond, 2007; Golden, 1987; Peplau & Garnets, 2000).
Transgender is an umbrella term that incorporates differences in gender identity wherein one's assigned biological sex doesn't match their felt identity. This umbrella term includes persons who do not feel they fit into a dichotomous sex structure through which they are identified as male or female. Individuals in this category may feel as if they are in the wrong gender, but this perception may or may not correlate with a desire for surgical or hormonal reassignment (Meier & Labuski, 2013).
References for Definitions
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American Psychological Association. (2009). Report of the task force on appropriate therapeutic responses to sexual orientation. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/lgbt/resources/sexual-orientation
American Psychological Association. (2011). Answers to your questions: About transgender people, gender identity, and gender expression. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/topics/lgbt/transgender
American Psychological Association. (2012). Guidelines for psychological practice with lesbian, gay, and bisexual clients. American Psychologist®, 67(1), 10-42.
Bockting, W. O., & Gray, N. (2004, August). Transgender identity and HIV risk: An Internet-based study. Abstract presented at the 112th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Honolulu, Hawaii.
California Safety and Violence Prevention Act of 2000, Cal. Stat. §§ 200-220 (2000).
Chivers, M. L., & Bailey, J. M. (2000). Sexual orientation of female-to-male transsexuals: A 1615 comparison of homosexual and non-homosexual types. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29(3), 259-278.
Coleman, E., Bockting, W., Botzer, M., Cohen-Kettenis, P., DeCuypere, G., Feldman, J., … Zucker, K. (2011). Standards of Care for the Health of Transsexual, Transgender, and Gender-Nonconforming People, Version 7. International Journal of Transgenderism, 13, 165-232. doi: 10.1080/15532739.2011.700873
Coleman, E., Bockting, W. O., & Gooren, L. J. G. (1993). Homosexual and bisexual identity in sex-reassigned female-to-male transsexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 22(1), 37-50.
Daskalos, C. T. (1998). Changes in the sexual orientation of six heterosexual male-to-female 1671 transsexuals. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 27(6), 605-614. doi:10.1023/A:1018725201811
Diamond, L. M. (2008). Sexual fluidity: Understanding women's love and desire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Docter, R. F., & Fleming, J. S. (2001). Measures of transgender behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 30(3), 255-271
Docter, R. F., & Prince, V. (1997). Transvestism: A survey of 1032 cross-dressers. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 26(6), 589-605.
Elizabeth, A. (2013). Challenging the binary: sexual identity that is not duality. Journal of Bisexuality, 13(3), 329-337. doi: 10.1080/15299716.2013.813421
Find Youth Info. (n.d.). How trained service professionals and self-advocacy makes a difference for youth with mental health, substance abuse, or co-occurring issues. Retrieved from http://www.findyouthinfo.gov/youth-briefs/transition-age-youth-challenges
Fisk, N. (1974). Gender dysphoria syndrome: The conceptualization that liberalizes indications for total gender reorientation and implies a broadly based multi-dimensional rehabilitative regimen [Editorial comment]. Western Journal of Medicine, 120(5) 386-391.
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Golden, C. (1987). Diversity and variability in women's sexual identities. The Boston Lesbian Psychologies Collective, ed., Lesbian psychologies: explorations and challenges (pp.19-34). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
Houk, C. P., Hughes, I.A., Ahmed, S. F., Lee, P.A., and Writing Committee for the International Intersex Consensus Conference Participants. (2006). Summary of consensus statement on intersex disorders and their management. Pediatrics, 118(2)753-757. doi: 10.1542/peds.2006-0737
Just the Facts Coalition. (2008). Just the facts about sexual orientation and youth: A primer for principals, educators, and school personnel. Retrieved from www.apa.org/pi/lgbc/publications/justthefacts.html
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., & Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Oxford, England: Saunders.
Klein, F. (1993). The bisexual option (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harrington Park.
Klein, F., Sepekoff, B., & Wolf, T. J. (1985). Sexual orientation: A multi-variable dynamic process. Journal of Homosexuality, 11(1-2), 35-49.
Knudson, G., De Cuypere, G., & Bockting, W. (2010). Process toward consensus on recommendations for revision of the DSM diagnoses of gender identity disorders by The World Professional Association for Transgender Health. International Journal of Transgenderism, 12(2), 54-59.
Meier, S. C. & Labuski, C. M. (2013) The demographics of the transgender population. In A. K. Baumle (ed.), International Handbooks of Population, International Handbook on the Demography of Sexuality, 5 (pp. 289-327). doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-5512-3_16
Meier, S. C., Pardo, S., Labuski, C. & Babcock, J. (2013). Measures of clinical health among female-to-male transgender persons as a function of sexual orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 463-474. doi: 10.1007/s10508-012-0052-2
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Peplau, L. A., & Garnets, L. D. (2000). A new paradigm for understanding women's sexuality and sexual orientation. Journal of Social Issues, 56(2) 330-350. doi: 10.1111/0022-4537.00169
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Rossen, E., & Cowan, K. C. (2012). A framework for school-wide bullying prevention and safety. Communique , 41(2). Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/bullying/bullying_brief_12.pdf
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Wiesemann, C., Ude-Koeller, S., Sinnecker, G.H.G., & Thyen, U. (2010). Ethical principles and recommendations for the medical management of differences of sex development (DSD)/intersex in children and adolescents. European Journal of Pediatrics, 169(6), 671-679.