Cognition Domain: Performance Indicators

Content Standards

After concluding this unit, students understand:

1. Encoding of memory.
2. Storage of memory.
3. Retrieval of memory.

Content Standards with Performance Standards

Content Standard 1: Encoding of memory

Students are able to (performance standards):

1.1: Identify factors that influence encoding.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Demonstrating the role of visual memory in encoding.
b. Discussing the role of context and meaning on encoding (e.g., semantic encoding, mood-congruent and state-dependent memory).
c. Discussing the role of rote rehearsal, imagery and organization on memory.
d. Examining the concept of serial position effect.
e. Discussing the role of attention (e.g., selective attention, inattentional blindness, change blindness).

1.2: Characterize the difference between shallow (surface) and deep (elaborate) processing.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Describing how deep processing leads to longer lasting and easier to recall memories.
b. Explaining classic examples of shallow processing such as the penny test.
e. Describing how making information personally meaningful (e.g., the self-referencing effect) is a great example of deep processing.
d. Explaining why information that is unique, emotional, and/or distinct facilitates deep processing (e.g., flashbulb memories).

1.3: Discuss strategies for improving the encoding of memory.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Providing examples of uses of mnemonic devices (e.g., chunking, peg words).
b. Discussing the value of spaced or distributed practice as compared to massed practice.
c. Demonstrating how elaboration improves encoding.
d. Discussing how students can use semantic encoding to study more effectively.

Content Standard 2: Storage of memory

Students are able to (performance standards):

2.1: Describe the differences between working memory and long-term memory.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Explaining the duration and capacity of short-term memory.
b. Conducting a demonstration that uses short-term memory.
c. Providing examples of the serial position effect (e.g., primacy and recency effects).
d. Discussing the concept of working memory as it relates to short-term memory (e.g., Baddeley).
e. Conducting a demonstration of working memory (e.g., phonological loop and visual-spatial sketchpad).
f. Charting the duration and capacity of long-term memory.

2.2: Identify and explain biological processes related to how memory is stored.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Describing the process of long-term potentiation.
b. Discussing the role of the hippocampus and cerebellum in the formation of explicit and implicit memories, respectively.
c. Describing the role of the amygdala in processing emotionally charged memories  (e.g., flashbulb memories).
d. Discussing contemporary research on the role of neurotransmitters in memory (e.g., Kandel’s research).

2.3: Discuss types of memory and memory disorders (e.g., amnesias, dementias).
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Providing examples of different types of memory (e.g., sensory, episodic, semantic, implicit, explicit and procedural, eidetic and flashbulb).
b. Distinguishing between implicit and explicit memory within the context of memory disorders.
c. Distinguishing between anterograde and retrograde amnesia.
d. Describing how source monitoring errors occur.
e. Identifying causes and characteristics of types of dementia (e.g., accidents, sports injuries, chemical-related, aging).
f. Evaluating the significance of amnesiac case studies (e.g., patient H.M.)

2.4: Discuss strategies for improving the storage of memories.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Providing examples of the use of chunking to increase the capacity of short-term memory.
b. Describing the results of Ebbinghaus’s experiments with nonsense syllables and the forgetting curve.
c. Applying principles of encoding and storage to effective studying and learning.

Content Standard 3: Retrieval of memory

Students are able to (performance standards):

3.1: Analyze the importance of retrieval cues in memory.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Identifying contextual and state-related cues (e.g., encoding specificity, state dependent memory, mood congruence, context dependent memory).
b. Describing the concept of the serial position effect (i.e., primary and recency effect) in remembering items on a list.
c. Discussing the role of priming as a retrieval cue.

3.2: Explain the role that interference plays in retrieval.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Relating the concept of interference to studying school-related material.
b. Providing examples of proactive and retroactive interference.
c. Explaining how negative transfer impedes retrieval and how positive transfer assists retrieval.

3.3: Discuss the factors influencing how memories are retrieved.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Examining problems related to retrieval (e.g., the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, context effects, stress and anxiety).
b. Describing how concepts such as massed versus distributed practice, overlearning, state and context dependence, and schemas might relate to studying.
c. Discussing the misinformation effect and constructive memory.
d. Discussing source amnesia.

3.4: Explain how memories can be malleable.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Describing research (e.g., Loftus) on the tendency to construct memories versus accurately recalling memories.
b. Describing the implications constructed memories have on courtroom testimonies (e.g., eyewitness testimonies, Ronald Cotton case).
c. Discussing the accuracy of flashbulb memories.
d. Evaluating the evidence in the recovered memory controversy.

3.5: Discuss strategies for improving the retrieval of memories.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Developing and describing mnemonic devices to help retrieve psychological concepts.
b. Listing specific suggestions to enhance deep processing of information and to minimize the effect of interference.
c. Developing informal self-quiz strategies during studying to clearly understand what concepts they do or do not understand.

Content Standards

After concluding this unit, students understand:

1. Basic elements comprising thought.
2. Obstacles related to thought.

Content Standards with Performance Standards

Content Standard 1: Basic elements comprising thought

Students are able to (performance standards):

1.1: Define cognitive processes involved in understanding information.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Differentiating and providing examples of concepts and prototypes as elements of thought.
b. Identifying mental images and verbal symbols as elements that comprise thinking.
c. Differentiating between convergent and divergent thinking.
d. Defining metacognition and evaluating how it relates to learning.

1.2: Define processes involved in problem-solving and decision-making.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Describing the steps involved in the problem-solving process.
b. Discussing how creative thinking strategies, such as divergent thinking, and restructuring, are used in problem-solving.
c. Describing the effects of social factors on problem-solving.
d. Providing examples of how algorithms, heuristics (e.g., availability, representativeness heuristics), and insight are used in problem-solving.
e. Providing examples of how framing impacts decision-making.

1.3: Discuss non-human problem-solving abilities.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Examining Kohler’s research on insight learning in chimpanzees.
b. Discussing problem-solving/language use in non-mammals (e.g. Alex the parrot).
c. Describing how Tolman measured latent learning in rats.
d. Describing self-concept/theory of mind in great apes, elephants and dolphins (e.g., recognizing self in mirrors).
e. Describing how Thorndike’s puzzle box using cats was used to establish the law of effect.

Content Standard 2: Obstacles related to thought

Students are able to (performance standards):

2.1: Describe obstacles to problem-solving.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Providing examples of how mental set and functional fixedness prevent the solving of a problem.
b. Evaluating strategies (e.g., incubation, breaking into smaller parts) and obstacles involved in a class problem-solving activity.
c. Explaining how availability and representativeness heuristics (bias) hinder problem-solving.
d. Describing the false consensus effect.
e. Discussing examples of poorly framed problems, and how this impedes problem-solving.

2.2: Describe obstacles to decision-making.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Providing examples of how framing, risk avoidance and overconfidence can affect decision-making.
b. Differentiating between belief bias and belief perseverance.
c. Differentiating between the representative and availability heuristics.
d. Explaining why mental sets and priming can hinder decision-making.
e. Describing how groupthink and group polarization can lead to poor decision-making.

2.3: Describe obstacles to making good judgments.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Determining the effects of hindsight bias, confirmation bias and belief perseverance.
b. Describing how the anchoring bias, availability heuristics and representativeness heuristics lead to poor decisions.
c. Exploring current biological research on adolescent brain development and risk-taking behavior.

Content Standards

After concluding this unit, students understand:

1. Perspectives on intelligence.
2. Assessment of intelligence.
3. Issues in intelligence.

Content Standards with Performance Standards

Content Standard 1: Perspectives on intelligence

Students are able to (performance standards):

1.1: Discuss intelligence as a general factor.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Discussing if it is possible to create a definition for intelligence.
b. Examining the term “reification” and applying it to intelligence.
c. Explaining how cognitive processes, such as analogical reasoning and speed of processing, are involved in intelligence.
d. Discussing the role of planning and self-regulation in intelligence.
e. Discussing the relationship between intelligence and musical, artistic and other special abilities.
f. Debating whether intelligence is one ability or several abilities.
g. Evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of general (“g”) factor tests (e.g., cultural sensitivity, Flynn effect).

1.2: Discuss alternative conceptualizations of intelligence.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. escribing how intelligence test scores are derived.
b. Comparing traditional psychometric theories of intelligence to more recent approaches (e.g., Gardner’s multiple intelligences, Sternberg’s triarchic theory).
c. Describing emotional intelligence.
d. Discussing the relationship between creativity and intelligence.

1.3: Describe the extremes of intelligence.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Discussing the results of Terman’s longitudinal study on gifted individuals.
b. Providing examples of learning disabilities.
c. Sharing case studies of the range and variety of intelligence (e.g., savants, the autism spectrum, individuals with Williams syndrome).

Content Standard 2: Assessment of intelligence

Students are able to (performance standards):

2.1: Discuss the history of intelligence testing, including historical use and misuse in the context of fairness.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Describing the reasons for the creation of the original Binet test.
b. Defining the concept of mental age.
c. Explaining the reasons the Stanford-Binet intelligence test was developed.
d. Comparing and contrasting the Stanford-Binet and Wechsler intelligence tests.
e. Citing specific historical examples of the misuse of testing such as military selection, immigrant screening, and discrimination against ethnic and other minorities.

2.2: Identify current methods of assessing human abilities.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Citing correlations between IQ and academic achievement and explaining the correlation.
b. Estimating how intelligence test scores correlate with other measurable variables (e.g., grades, supervisor ratings, etc.).
c. Explaining why intelligence tests and other aptitude tests correlate with ability to do a job, while tests of motivation and personality increase the ability to predict how well individuals will actually perform.
d. Differentiating between aptitude and achievement tests.
e. Defining standardization, reliability and validity as each applies to testing.

2.3: Identify measures of and data on reliability and validity for intelligence test scores.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Explaining how data from achievement and aptitude tests relate to predictive validity (e.g., future earnings and college GPA).
b. Defining stereotype threat and discussing its impact on test performance.
c. Describing the Flynn effect and discussing potential causes for this phenomenon.

Content Standard 3: Issues in intelligence

Students are able to (performance standards):

3.1: Discuss issues related to the consequences of intelligence testing.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Describing the abilities commonly measured by intelligence tests.
b. Identifying valid uses of conventional tests.
c. Exploring the consequences of using labels derived from testing, such as genius, normal or intellectually disabled.
d. Evaluating the evidence that intelligence tests are culturally biased.
e. Examining the evidence for stereotype threat in intelligence testing.

3.2: Discuss the influences of biological, cultural, and environmental factors on intelligence.
Students may indicate this by (performance indicators):

a. Discussing the role of heredity in intelligence, including findings from twin studies.
b. Discussing the role of environment (e.g., nutrition, socioeconomic status) or child rearing on intelligence.
c. Discussing the research on the cultural context of intelligence.
d. Explaining how demographic factors may be related to intelligence.

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