Note: These definitions appear in the Inclusive Language Guide (2nd ed.). View the references for these terms on the Inclusive Language Guide web page.
acculturation
“The processes by which groups or individuals adjust the social and cultural values, ideas, beliefs, and behavioral patterns of their culture of origin to those of a different culture. Psychological acculturation is an individual’s attitudinal and behavioral adjustment to another dominant culture, which typically varies with regard to degree and type” (APA, n.d., Acculturation definition). Acculturation for marginalized people is often traumatic, not simply a choice but a matter of survival. Forced acculturation experiences are violent, with the intent of reinforcing the primacy of a dominant culture and its people (e.g., White) and substantiating the societal racial hierarchy (Liu et al., 2019).
African American/Black
African American refers to American people of African ancestry. African American and Black are not always interchangeable; African American refers to the ethnicity, whereas Black is a racial group/category. “African American” should not be used as an umbrella term for people of African ancestry worldwide because it obscures other ethnicities or national origins, such as Nigerian, Kenyan, Jamaican, Bahamian, Puerto Rican, or Panamanian; in these cases, use “Black.” The term Afro-Latine (and related terms ending in -Latino, -Latina, or -Latinx) refers to individuals in Latin America or of Latin American descent who are also of African ancestry. The terms “Negro,” “colored,” and “Afro-American” are outdated, and their use is generally inappropriate (APA, 2020b, 2022a).
antiracism
A system of equity based on race that is created and maintained by a dynamic interplay between psychological factors (i.e., equitable thoughts, feelings, and actions) and sociopolitical factors (i.e., equitable laws, policies, and institutions; Roberts & Rizzo, 2021).
Arab, Middle Eastern, and North African (Arab/MENA)
This category “includes all individuals who identify with one or more nationalities or ethnic groups with origins in Arabia, the Middle East, and North Africa. Examples include, but are not limited to, Lebanese, Iranian, Egyptian, Syrian, Moroccan, and Israeli” (Initial Proposals, 2023, p. 5379). When writing about people of MENA descent, state the nation of origin (e.g., Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Lebanon, Israel) when possible. “In some cases, people of MENA descent who claim Arab ancestry and reside in the United States may be referred to as ‘Arab Americans’” (APA, 2020b, p. 144). In all cases, it is best to allow individuals to self-identify (APA, 2022a).
Asian/Asian American
When writing about people of Asian ancestry from Asia, the term “Asian” is appropriate; for people of Asian descent from the United States or Canada, the appropriate terms are “Asian American” and “Asian Canadian,” respectively. It is problematic to group “Asian” and “Asian American” as if they are synonymous. This usage reinforces the idea that Asian Americans are perpetual foreigners. “Asian” refers to Asians in Asia, not in the United States, and should not be used to refer to Asian Americans who are citizens of the United States. Similarly, Asian international students, scholars, visitors, migrants, or immigrants who reside in the United States but have not become U.S. citizens should not be referred to as “Asian Americans” because not every Asian who lives in the United States has the rights of citizenship and is protected by the U.S. Constitution. The outdated term “Oriental” is primarily used to refer to cultural objects such as carpets and is pejorative when used to refer to people. Refer to the specific nation or region of origin when possible, for example, “Asian origin” may be divided regionally into South Asian, East Asian, and Southeast Asian (APA, 2020b, 2022a).
BIPOC (Black, Indigenous, and people of color)
People use the term “BIPOC” to acknowledge that not all people of color face equal levels of injustice. The construction of the term recognizes that Black and Indigenous people are severely impacted by systemic racial injustices (Garcia, 2020; Merriam-Webster, n.d.-a). The term “BIPOC” is still considered by many to indicate a hierarchy among communities of color. Scholars argue that the limitation of BIPOC is that it homogenizes communities of color together and a need exists to account for people’s unique racial, cultural, and intersectional identities (Cisneros et al., 2023). Experts suggest that when “BIPOC” is used, people fail to recognize how different groups are racialized and further engage in othering, particularly for racial groups that are not part of Black and Indigenous communities. It is important to recognize that some terms or phrases that were initially created to encourage solidarity among different racial movements may over time become descriptors that erase distinctions (Grady, 2020). Therefore, use specific terms when referring to different racial and ethnic groups. When such a level of specificity is not possible, instead of “BIPOC” use alternative terms, such as “people/persons of color” and “communities of color.”
color-blind beliefs
The denial or minimization of race or racism in society (i.e., “not see [skin] color”; Neville et al., 2013, p. 456; see also Bonilla-Silva, 2021). Color-blind beliefs in a racial sense purportedly are based on the assumption that acknowledgment of race reifies racial divisions in society. People who endorse color-blind beliefs believe that individual effort is sufficient for achievement in a meritocracy predicated on the idea that everyone has equal opportunities for life success. People who hold color-blind attitudes believe that doing so reduces racial and ethnic prejudice and that acknowledging racial and ethnic differences promotes racial division. However, research shows that holding color-blind beliefs allows prejudice to fester (Pahlke et al., 2012; Richeson & Nussbaum, 2004). Likewise, scholars are beginning to acknowledge the inherent ableism in the term “color-blind” to describe beliefs and policies that promote a deficit orientation toward disability. The use of the term “color-evasiveness” is suggested as an alternative because it is an “expansive racial ideology” that “resists positioning people with disabilities as problematic” (Annamma et al., 2017, p. 153).
color-blind policies
Institutional policies that are race-neutral in language and tone but have a disproportionately harmful impact on people of color (Apfelbaum et al., 2012; Block, 2016; Castro-Atwater, 2016; Penner & Dovidio, 2016). Color-blind beliefs undergird color-blind policies. Research indicates that the United States is not a meritocracy (Farkas, 2003; Gale et al., 2017; Pearson et al., 2009). Moreover, color-blind policies that have a disparate negative impact on people of color do not lead to equitable treatment across groups (APA Task Force on Race and Ethnicity Guidelines in Psychology, 2019; Helms, 2008; Neville et al., 2000, 2016). See Color-blind beliefs.
colorism
“A form of discrimination based on skin color, usually, though not always, favoring lighter skin color over darker skin color within a racial or ethnic group” (Noe-Bustamante et al., 2021, para. 3).
culture
The values, beliefs, language, rituals, traditions, and other behaviors that are passed from one generation to another within any socially definable group. Accordingly, cultural groups could include groups based on shared identities such as ethnicity (e.g., German American, Blackfoot, Algerian American), gender and gender identity (e.g., woman, man, transgender, gender nonconforming), sexual orientation (e.g., gay, lesbian, bisexual), and socioeconomic status (e.g., poor, working class, middle class, wealthy) (APA Task Force on Race and Ethnicity Guidelines in Psychology, 2019).
cultural appropriation
“An action whereby an individual makes use of, imitates, or takes possession of cultural products of an outgroup or source community” (A. J. Mosley et al., 2023, p. 1). Perceptions of cultural appropriation vary and are influenced by multiple factors, including the degree to which people hold color-evasive or color-blind beliefs, racial power differentials, and knowledge of racial history.
enculturation
First introduced by anthropologist Melville Herskovits (1948), enculturation is defined as “the process by which individuals learn and adopt the ways and manners of their culture” (Matsumoto, 2004, p. 156). Enculturation emphasizes socialization to, or maintenance of, one’s culture of ethnic or familial ethnic origin (APA Presidential Task Force on Educational Disparities, 2012; Kim & Abreu, 2001; Zhang & Moradi, 2013). This process considers how, for example, U.S.-born or highly U.S.-acculturated individuals may be more actively learning their ethnic origin culture, rather than maintaining it (APA Task Force on Race and Ethnicity Guidelines in Psychology, 2019).
ethnic bias
“Differential treatment toward individuals based on their ethnic group, often resulting in inequities in such areas as education, employment, health care, and housing. [With regard to testing and measurement, ethnic bias refers to] deficiency or tainting in an instrument that differentially affects the scores of those from different ethnic groups. Ideally, researchers strive to create culture-fair tests” (APA, n.d., Ethnic bias definition; see also Phinney, 1992; Rivas-Drake & Umaña-Taylor, 2019).
ethnic identity
“An individual’s psychological sense of being a person who is defined, in part, by membership in a specific ethnic group. This sense is usually considered to be a complex construct involving shared social, cultural, linguistic, religious, and often racial factors but identical with none of them” (APA, n.d., Ethnic identity definition).
ethnicity
A characterization of people based on having a shared culture (e.g., language, food, music, dress, values, and beliefs) related to common ancestry and shared history (APA, 2021c).
Hispanic, Latino, Latina, Latino/a, Latin@, Latine, Latinx, or Chicano
When writing about people who identify as Hispanic, Latino, Latina, Latin@, Latine, Latinx, Chicano, or another related designation, you should consult with the individuals with whom you are working to determine the appropriate terminology.
- Note that “Hispanic” is not necessarily an all-encompassing term, and the labels “Hispanic” and “Latine” have different connotations.
- The term “Latine” (and its related forms) might be preferred by those originating from Latin America, including Brazil. “Latine” is a gender-inclusive alternative that is far more adaptable to the Spanish language than “Latinx” (Ochoa, 2022).
- Some use the word “Hispanic” to refer to those who speak Spanish; however, not every group in Latin America speaks Spanish (e.g., the official language of Brazil is Portuguese).
- The word “Latino” is gendered (i.e., “Latino” is masculine, and “Latina” is feminine), whereas the term “Latine” is gender inclusive.
The term “Latinx” may be used for people who identify as Latinx but may not broadly resonate as an inclusive term given that the “x” signifier does not conform with Spanish or Portuguese syntax (de Onís, 2017). Typically, the most marginalized communities do not use “Latinx” (Ochoa, 2022). Individuals who tend to self-identify as Latinx are likely to be U.S.-born young adults who are predominantly English speakers. Whenever possible, use terms that people use to describe themselves.
In general, naming a nation or region of origin is preferred (e.g., Bolivian, Dominican, Salvadoran, or Costa Rican is more specific than Latino, Latine, Latinx, Latin American, or Hispanic) (APA, 2020b, 2022a).
Indigenous
The Native American Journalists Association (n.d.) states that although no official definition of “Indigenous” exists, “the United Nations has developed an understanding of the term based on self-identification; historical continuity to precolonial and/or presettler societies; links to territories and resources, distinct social, economic and political systems and possession of distinct languages, cultures and beliefs” (Indigenous or Aboriginal section). Capitalize “Indigenous People” when referring to a specific group; when describing specific persons who are Indigenous, capitalize “Indigenous” but not “people” (APA, 2020b, 2022a; for more information, see APA’s bias-free language guidelines on racial and ethnic identity). Avoid using possessive language in reference to Indigenous groups, such as “of” or “our.” For example, First Nations, Inuit, and Métis peoples in Canada prefer that any possessive language be avoided because they do not “belong” to Canada but are sovereign nations in their own right (Queens University, 2019).
Indigenous Peoples around the world
When writing about Indigenous Peoples, use the names that they call themselves. In general, refer to an Indigenous group as a “people” or “nation” rather than as a “tribe.” The bias-free language guidelines of the Publication Manual (APA, 2020b, p. 144) make the following distinctions:
- In North America, the collective terms “Native American” and “Native North American” are acceptable (and may be preferred to “American Indian”). “Indian” usually refers to people from India. Specify the nation or people if possible (e.g., Cherokee, Navajo, Sioux).
- Hawaiian Natives may identify as “Native American,” “Hawaiian Native,” “Indigenous Peoples of the Hawaiian Islands,” and/or “Pacific Islander.”
- In Canada, refer to the Indigenous Peoples collectively as “Indigenous Peoples” or “Aboriginal Peoples” (National Aboriginal Health Organization, n.d.); specify the nation or people if possible (e.g., People of the First Nations of Canada, People of the First Nations, or First Nations People; Métis; Inuit).
- In Alaska, the Indigenous People may identify as “Alaska Natives.” The Indigenous Peoples in Alaska, Canada, Siberia, and Greenland may identify as a specific nation (e.g., Inuit, Iñupiat). Avoid the term “Eskimo” because it may be considered pejorative.
- In Latin America and the Caribbean, refer to the Indigenous Peoples collectively as “Indigenous Peoples” and by name if possible (e.g., Quechua, Aymara, Taíno, Nahuatl).
- In Australia, the Indigenous Peoples may identify as “Aboriginal People” or “Aboriginal Australians” and “Torres Strait Islander People” or “Torres Strait Island Australians.” Refer to specific groups when people use these terms to refer to themselves (e.g., Anangu Pitjantjatjara, Arrernte).
- In New Zealand, the Indigenous People may identify as “Māori” or the “Māori people” (the proper spelling includes the diacritical macron over the “a”).
For information on citing the Traditional Knowledge or Oral Traditions of Indigenous Peoples as well as capitalizing terms related to Indigenous Peoples, see Sections 5.7 and 8.9, respectively, of the Publication Manual (APA, 2020b).
Indigenous land acknowledgment
“An effort to recognize the Indigenous past, present, and future of a particular location and to understand [one’s] place within that relationship. Land acknowledgments usually take the form of written and/or verbal statements” and are becoming more common at conferences (including the APA convention), community gatherings, places of worship, concerts, and festivals (Native Governance Center, 2021, What Is Indigenous Land Acknowledgment? section). Such land acknowledgments are a first step only. Without substantive action to accompany acknowledgment, it would be performative allyship. Substantive action can include concrete steps about how you intend to support Indigenous communities. To view an example, visit APA’s land acknowledgment.
Jews/Jewish Americans
According to a 2020 Pew survey on Jewish Americans, the U.S. Jewish population consists of the following two groups:
- About three quarters (73%) of U.S. Jewish adults identified their religion as Jewish and do not profess any other religion.
- About a quarter (27%) of U.S. Jewish adults described themselves (religiously) as atheist, agnostic, or nothing in particular but considered themselves to be Jewish ethnically, culturally, or by family background (e.g., they have a Jewish parent or were raised Jewish).
- The majority of U.S. Jews identify as White (Pew Research Center, 2021).
people of color
This term represents a shift from the term “minority” to refer to individuals from diverse racial and ethnic backgrounds. Although it is acceptable for communities to be described as “minoritized,” it is not recommended to refer to people or a population as minority. Instead, use “people of color” or “communities of color” when referring to groups from diverse backgrounds who are non-White. When appropriate, you may use the terms underserved, underrepresented, or marginalized to describe populations of color; however, use the specific group title whenever possible, such as Asian American women, Black students, or Indigenous communities (APA, 2020b, 2022a).
people of European origin
When writing about people of European ancestry, the terms “White” and “European American” are acceptable. Adjust the latter term as needed for location (e.g., “European,” “European American,” and “European Australian” for people of European descent living in Europe, the United States, and Australia, respectively). Using the term “Caucasian” instead of “White” or “European” is discouraged because it originated as a way of classifying White people as a race to be favorably compared with other races. As with all discussions of race and ethnicity, be more specific about regional (e.g., Southern European, Scandinavian) and national (e.g., Italian, Irish, Swedish, French, Polish) origin when possible (APA, 2020b, 2022a).
race
The social construction and categorization of people on the basis of perceived shared physical traits that result in the maintenance of a sociopolitical hierarchy (APA, 2021c).
racial identity
“An individual’s psychological sense of being defined, in part, by membership in a particular racial group. The strength of this sense depends on the extent to which an individual has processed and internalized the psychological, sociopolitical, cultural, and other contextual factors related to membership in the group. Given the socially constructed nature of racial categories, racial identifications may change over time in different contexts” (APA, n.d., Racial identity definition; see also Rivas-Drake & Umaña-Taylor, 2019).
racial and ethnocultural justice
Applies social justice meanings specifically to inequities affecting people of color (Prilleltensky, 2012). Thus, it explicitly attends to the ways that race and ethnicity have affected the inequitable distribution of resources and opportunities for equitable participation, power, and influence (e.g., distributive, procedural, retributive, relational, and cultural justice; Prilleltensky, 2012). Racial and ethnocultural justice within psychology also speaks to how oppression and marginalization have shaped the psychological, relational, and practical experiences of people of color. Psychologists aspiring for racial and ethnocultural justice strive to apply this understanding to develop their professional activities in ways that address the negative effects of injustice and challenge the existence and maintenance of racial and ethnic oppression (APA Task Force on Race and Ethnicity Guidelines in Psychology, 2019).
racial socialization
Refers to the developmental process by which race-related messages about the meaning of race and racism are transmitted by parents and caregivers, peers, and extended families intergenerationally. It consists of various kinds of parental messages, activities, and behaviors; teaching children about their racial–ethnic heritage and history and promoting racial pride (racial pride/cultural socialization); highlighting the existence of inequities between groups and preparing youths to cope with discrimination (racial barriers/preparation for bias); emphasizing individual character traits such as hard work over racial or ethnic group membership (egalitarianism); focusing on the necessity of individual excellence and the development of positive character traits (self-development); promoting feelings of individual worth within the broader context of the child’s race or ethnicity (self-worth messages); emphasizing negative characteristics associated with their racial identity (negative messages); conveying distrust in interracial communications (promotion of mistrust); engaging in race-related activities and behaviors (socialization behaviors); and avoiding mention of issues pertaining to race or ethnicity (silence about race). (Hughes et al., 2006 Neblett et al., 2012; Scottham et al., 2006). Together, these multiple aspects of racial socialization are thought to combine to provide youths of color with a view of both the significance and the meaning of race (and ethnicity) in U.S. society (Neblett et al., 2016).
racial/racialized/race-based trauma
A form of race-based stress, referring to people of color and Indigenous individuals’ reactions to dangerous events and experiences of racial discrimination. Such experiences may include threats of harm and injury, humiliating and shaming events, and witnessing racial discrimination toward other people of color. Although similar to posttraumatic stress disorder, racial trauma is unique in that it involves ongoing individual and collective injuries due to exposure and reexposure to race-based stress. Brave Heart, a Hunkpapa/Oglala Lakota social worker, “conceptualized historical trauma and documented how the trauma of racism and colonization showed ‘cumulative wounding across generations’” (French et al., 2020, p. 18). Later literature argued “that the systematic effects of intentional or unintentional racism across individual, institutional, and cultural levels can have significant psychological impacts similar to other forms of trauma” (French et al., 2020, p. 18; see also Bryant-Davis & Ocampo, 2005; Carter, 2007; Comas-Díaz et al., 2019; Kniffley, 2018; D.V. Mosley et al., 2020).
racism
A system of power that structures opportunity and assigns value to people based on their ancestry and phenotypic properties (e.g., skin color and hair texture associated with “race” in the United States). Racism is expressed at multiple levels in a given society. It encompasses interpersonal interactions involving racial discrimination, cultural imagery, and harmful stereotypes of people of color and macro-level policies and practices that systematically disadvantage people of color for quality education, housing, health care, employment, and so forth. These disadvantages result in racial disparities favoring White people in earnings and wealth, mental and physical health, political access and influence, and treatment under the law (APA, 2021b; Jones, 2002). The following more specific forms of racism also exist:
- cultural racism
The “institutional domination and sense of racial–ethnic superiority of one social group over others,” justified by culturally constructed markers like language use, religious practice, immigrant status, social welfare dependency, and the profiling of criminal and terrorist behavior (Chua, 2017, para. 1).
- institutional racism
The collection of policies, practices, and procedures of societal institutions—such as educational institutions, government, health care, employers, housing, financial institutions, the arts, entertainment and media, and knowledge—that marginalizes and subjugates nondominant racial groups in a given society (Harrell, 2000; Jones, 2000). See also institutionalized racism, systemic racism. Various disciplines (e.g., psychology, sociology, and public health) are beginning to delineate between institutional and structural racism. Until recently, these terms were often used interchangeably (Gee & Hicken, 2021).
- structural racism
Results from interconnected and synergistic effects of institutional racism. That is the laws, policies, and practices across institutions that maintain White supremacy, thereby producing harmful cumulative, durable, race-based disparities. It includes the failure to correct previous laws and practices that were explicitly or effectively racist (Anderson et al., 2022; Z. D. Bailey et al., 2017; Gee & Hicken, 2021). See also systemic racism.
- interpersonal racism
Occurs when individuals from socially and politically dominant racial groups behave in ways that diminish and harm people who belong to other racial groups. Interpersonal racism is therefore a form of bigotry (negative attitudes about groups different from one’s own, not necessarily tied to race) or prejudice (a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience) (APA, 2021b; Jones, 2000).
- internalized racism
A notion of interpersonal impact experienced by people of color in which people hold negative societal beliefs and stereotypes about themselves—for example, about complexion and color (i.e., colorism) that reinforce the superiority of White people and may lead to the self-perception of being devalued, worthless, and powerless (APA, 2021b; Jones, 2000).
Roma, Romany, Romani, or Traveler communities
Roma (singular: Rom), also called Romany, are “an ethnic group of traditionally itinerant people who originated in northern India” but now live worldwide, mostly in Europe (Britannica, 2017, para. 1). They have long experienced marginalization and discrimination from society. Using the term “Gypsy” to refer to these communities is now considered outdated and pejorative. The European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance describes anti-Gypsyism as “a specific form of racism, an ideology founded on racial superiority, a form of dehumanization and institutional racism nurtured by historical discrimination, which is expressed, among others, by violence, hate speech, exploitation, stigmatization, and the most blatant kind of discrimination” (as cited in O’Brien et al., 2022, para. 2).
texturism
Discrimination based on hair texture often directed at people of African descent. Curls that are smaller, coarser, or kinkier in texture are often less prized, whereas looser curls and straight hair that adheres to Eurocentric beauty standards are considered more ideal (Awad et al., 2015).
tokenism
“The making of a perfunctory or symbolic gesture that suggests commitment to a practice or standard, particularly by hiring or promoting a single member of a previously excluded group to demonstrate one’s benevolent intentions. For example, an all-White company may hire a token Black employee to give the appearance of organizational parity as opposed to actually eliminating racial inequality in the workplace. Tokenism depends on the prevailing norms, structures, and conceptualizations (e.g., of ideal ingroup and outgroup members) of the cultural context in which it is embedded” (APA, n.d., Tokenism definition).
White privilege
Unearned power that is afforded to White people on the basis of race, rather than earned merit, that protects White people from the consequences of being racist and benefiting from systemic racism (Liu, 2017). Such power may come in the form of rights, benefits (e.g., health care), social comforts, opportunities (e.g., access to education), or the ability to define what is normative or valued. This does not mean that White people seek to be privileged, only that they inherently benefit from being members of a dominant group in a biased system (APA Task Force on Race and Ethnicity Guidelines in Psychology, 2019; Goodman, 2011).
White supremacy
The ideological belief that biological and cultural Whiteness is superior to all other races and ethnicities, as well as normal and healthy. This pervasive ideology continues to polarize the United States and undergird racism (APA, 2021c). See also White privilege.
